Parentification occurs when youth are forced to assume developmentally inappropriate parent- or adult-like roles and responsibilities. This review thoroughly examines current empirical research on parentification, its outcomes, and related mechanisms to outline patterns of findings and significant literature gaps. This review is timely in the large context of the COVID-19 pandemic, when pandemic-induced responsibilities and demands on youth, and the shifting family role may exacerbate parentification and its consequences. We used the 2020 updated Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework to identify 95 studies (13 qualitative, 81 quantitative, 1 mixed methods) meeting eligibility criteria. Representation from six continents highlights parentification as a global phenomenon. Using thematic analysis, we identified five themes from qualitative studies and five from quantitative studies. These were further integrated into four common themes: (1) some parentified youth experienced positive outcomes (e.g., positive coping), albeit constructs varied; (2) to mitigate additional trauma, youth employed various protective strategies; (3) common negative outcomes experienced by youth included internalizing behaviors, externalizing problems, and compromised physical health; and (4) youths’ characteristics (e.g., rejection sensitivity, attachment style), perceived benefits, and supports influenced parentification outcomes. Future methodological and substantive directions are discussed.

Social support is a crucial protective factor for mental health, including for farmers. Farmers’ social support has been associated with greater psychological well-being and reduced distress. However, little research has focused on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and/or queer (LGBTQ+) farmers and few studies have examined the role of social support for LGBTQ+ farmer mental health. The current study presents findings from analysis of survey data ( N =148) and semi-structured interview data ( N =17) to better understand United States (U.S.) LGBTQ+ farmers’ mental health experiences and the role of social support. Greater LGBTQ+ companionship was associated with less farm-specific stress, less LGBTQ+ victimization, fewer anxiety and depressive symptoms, and decreased suicide risk. Greater connection to LGBTQ+ friends and community were each associated with fewer poor mental health outcomes. Findings elucidate how LGBTQ+ farmers’ experiences of farm-related stress and LGBTQ+ victimization negatively impact mental health, while LGBTQ+ companionship is a form of social support that positively influences mental health. Researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in agriculture should question family and relationship-related assumptions and work to be inclusive of diverse family structures and relationships to ensure their work is supportive of LGBTQ+ farmers.

Black Americans face not only systemic racism but also the internalization of white supremacist ideologies, a process known as appropriated racial oppression (ARO). ARO involves adopting harmful racial stereotypes that can shape self-concept and behavior. Although its impact on individual well-being is documented, less is known about how ARO influences parenting, particularly racial-ethnic socialization (RES). Therefore, this study explores how parents’ ARO relates to the racial-ethnic socialization messages that their children report receiving, offering additional insight into intergenerational patterns of racial stress. Drawing on the Sociocultural Family Stress Model, we analyzed data from 201 Black parent-adolescent dyads (adolescents: M _age = 14.92 years; parents: M _age = 43.01 years). We examined six RES dimensions: racial pride, racial barriers, self-worth, egalitarian, negative messages, and socialization behaviors. Higher levels of ARO were associated with fewer positive and more negative RES messages. Skin tone, but not gender, moderated these associations such that the negative effects of ARO on racial barrier, self-worth, and egalitarian messages were stronger among lighter-skinned parents and youth. These findings highlight ARO as a potential barrier to affirming racial socialization practices and underscore the need for culturally grounded interventions that address internalized oppression in Black families.

Farmers face disproportionately high levels of stress, which has implications for their mental health and well-being. Notably, existing measures of farm stress have not attended to variations in stress based on identity-related experiences. This study investigated the factor structure of the Farm/Ranch Stress Inventory (FRSI) among LGBTQ+ farmers in the United States to see whether the factors were consistent with previous studies. We surveyed the experiences of 148 LGBTQ+ farmers from across the U.S. and used principal components analysis to analyze the factor structure of the FRSI. A scree plot, parallel analysis, variance explained, and interpretability factors were considered to determine the best-fitting solution. Our analysis revealed a six-component structure: Family and Finances, Operational Challenges and Sustainability, Long-Term Farming Viability, Social and Safety Dynamics, Logistical Circumstances, and Cultural Isolation, which diverged from the original five-factor model of Finances, Government and External Stress, Work Stress, Operation Stress, and Isolation. This study highlights that measures of stress must consider the unique contexts that may shape the experiences of farm stress among diverse populations. The results suggest that future measures of farm stress used with LGBTQ+ farmers might consider cultural and social factors in particular to better understand their experiences of stress.