Heart failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome with high morbidity and mortality, and its prevalence is rapidly increasing. Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is an important factor in the pathophysiology of HF, mainly due to its role in cardiac fibrosis, inflammation, and ventricular remodeling. Fibrosis is a hallmark of cardiac remodeling, HF, and atrial fibrillation development. This review aims to explore the involvement of Gal-3 in HF and its role in the pathogenesis and clinical diagnostic and prognostic significance. We report data on Gal-3 structure and molecular mechanisms of biological function crucial for HF development. Over the last decade, numerous studies have shown an association between echocardiographic and CMR biomarkers in HF and Gal-3 serum concentration. We discuss facts and concerns about Gal-3’s utility in acute and chronic HF with preserved and reduced ejection fraction for diagnosis, prognosis, and risk stratification. Finally, we present attempts to use Gal-3 as a therapeutic target in HF.

Our aim was the assessment of the prognostic significance of right heart thrombi (RiHT) and their characteristics in pulmonary embolism in relation to established prognostic factors.138 patients (69 females) aged (mean±sd) 62±19 years with RiHT were included into a multicenter registry. A control group of 276 patients without RiHT was created by propensity scoring from a cohort of 963 contemporary patients. The primary end-point was 30-day pulmonary embolism-related mortality; the secondary end-point included 30-day all-cause mortality. In RiHT patients, pulmonary embolism mortality was higher in 31 patients with systolic blood pressure <90 mmHg than in 107 normotensives (42%versus12%, p=0.0002) and was higher in the 83 normotensives with right ventricular dysfunction (RVD) than in the 24 normotensives without RVD (16%versus0%, p=0.038). In multivariable analysis the simplified Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index predicted mortality (hazard ratio 2.43, 95% CI 1.58–3.73; p<0.0001), while RiHT characteristics did not. Patients with RiHT had higher pulmonary embolism mortality than controls (19%versus8%, p=0.003), especially normotensive patients with RVD (16%versus7%, p=0.02).30-day mortality in patients with RiHT is related to haemodynamic consequences of pulmonary embolism and not to RiHT characteristics. However, patients with RiHT and pulmonary embolism resulting in RVD seem to have worse prognosis than propensity score-matched controls.

Background—: Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is the gold standard for the exclusion of thrombi in the left atrial appendage (LAA) before ablation for atrial fibrillation. Intracardiac echocardiography (ICE) is used to assist atrial fibrillation ablation; however, it can also be used for LAA imaging. The aim of our study was to determine whether ICE could replace TEE and to identify the optimal ICE placement for LAA visualization. Methods and Results—: Seventy-six consecutive patients (56 men; mean age, 55±9.6 years) scheduled for atrial fibrillation ablation underwent TEE before the procedure and LAA assessment by ICE. An 8F AcuNav probe was introduced into right atrium, pulmonary artery, and coronary sinus. LAA structure was analyzed by the echocardiographer and electrophysiologist who were blinded to the results of TEE. ICE probe was positioned in the right atrium in all patients, in the pulmonary artery in 64 of 74 (86%) patients, and in the coronary sinus in 49 of 74 (66%) patients. The LAA was properly visualized in 56 of 64 (87.5%) patients from the pulmonary artery versus 13 of 49 (26%) patients from the coronary sinus ( P <0.001). From the right atrium, the whole LAA cavity could not be seen in any patient. In those patients in whom LAA was visualized properly by ICE, a perfect agreement between ICE and TEE was obtained (both techniques detected LAA thrombus in 2 patients and excluded LAA thrombus in the remaining patients). Conclusions—: ICE can be used safely and effectively for the evaluation of LAA in patients undergoing atrial fibrillation ablation. ICE imaging from pulmonary artery is accurate for LAA visualization. Clinical Trial Registration—: URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov . Unique identifier: NCT01371279.

Imaging of the left atrium (LA) is mandatory during catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation (AF) and may be achieved by echocardiography. The aim of the present study was to assess the feasibility of using a recently released transoesophageal echocardiography (TEE) microprobe (micro-TEE) in non-sedated adult patients undergoing AF ablation and to directly compare this new technique with intracardiac echocardiography (ICE). The study group consisted of 12 consecutive patients (8 males, mean age 49 ± 14 years) who underwent first radiofrequency AF ablation. All patients underwent standard TEE, computed tomography, intraprocedural micro-TEE, and ICE. The easiness of introducing the microprobe in the supine position in non-sedated patients in the electrophysiology laboratory, its tolerability, and quality of obtained images were assessed using a five-point scale. There were no problems with microprobe introduction and obtaining images for a mean of 54 ± 17 min. The microprobe was significantly better tolerated than the standard TEE probe (4.3 ± 0.5 vs. 3.4 ± 0.6 points, P< 0.01). The micro-TEE was scored as significantly better than ICE in the assessment of the LA and LA appendage (LAA) anatomy and function. Both techniques were very useful in guiding transseptal puncture, although micro-TEE images were ranked higher by an echocardiographer than by an electrophysiologist (tenting 4.8 ± 0.6 vs. 4.0 ± 0.6 points, P< 0.01), whereas ICE images were ranked equally excellent by both observers. In non-sedated patients undergoing AF ablation, the micro-TEE can be used for the assessment of the LA, LAA, and pulmonary veins anatomy as well as the guidance of transseptal puncture.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) increases the risk of thromboembolic events by promoting clot formation in the left atrial appendage (LAA). Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is routinely used to exclude the presence of an LAA thrombus before AF ablation. So far, it has not been established what is the optimal combination of noninvasive parameters for thromboembolic risk stratification in this setting and whether patients at very low risk require TEE. The aim of the study was to assess predisposing factors for an LAA thrombus in patients scheduled for AF ablation and to identify those patients in whom preprocedural TEE is not necessary. In consecutive 151 patients (107 men; mean age, 57 ±10 years) the type of AF and renal function were assessed in addition to the CHA2DS2VASc score to improve thromboembolic risk stratification. An LAA thrombus or dense echo contrast with a strong suspicion of a probable thrombus was detected in 15 patients (10%). Diabetes, age of 65 years or older, persistent AF, and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of less than 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 were predictors of the LAA thrombus. A multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that only persistent AF and an eGFR of less than 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 were independent predictors of the LAA thrombus. The receiver operating characteristic curves showed that the greatest area under the curve (0.845) was achieved for the CHA2DS2VASc-AFR (CHA2DS2VASc plus the type of AF and renal function); the difference was not significant. A CHA2DS2VASc-AFR score of 2 or greater or a CHA2DS2VASc score of 1 or greater identified patients with the LAA thrombus with a sensitivity of 100% (and specificity of 54% and 36%, respectively). In patients scheduled for AF ablation, an LAA thrombus or dense echo contrast is a relatively common finding despite routine anticoagulant treatment. The addition of AF type and renal function to the CHA2DS2VASc score slightly improves thromboembolic risk stratification and may help identify patients who do not need preprocedural TEE.