Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by a progressive cognitive impairment tightly correlated with the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides (mainly Aβ(1-42)). There is a precocious disruption of glutamatergic synapses in AD, in line with an ability of Aβ to decrease astrocytic glutamate uptake. Accumulating evidence indicates that caffeine prevents the burden of AD, likely through the antagonism of A(2A) receptors (A(2A)R) which attenuates Aβ-induced memory impairment and synaptotoxicity. Since A(2A)R also modulate astrocytic glutamate uptake, we now tested if A(2A)R blockade could prevent the decrease of astrocytic glutamate uptake caused by Aβ. In cultured astrocytes, Aβ(1-42). (1 μM for 24 hours) triggered an astrogliosis typified by an increased density of GFAP, which was mimicked by the A(2A)R agonist, CGS 26180 (30 nM), and prevented by the A(2A)R antagonist, SCH 58261 (100 nM). Aβ1-42 also decreased D-aspartate uptake by 28 ± 4%, an effect abrogated upon genetic inactivation or pharmacological blockade of A(2A)R. In accordance with the long term control of glutamate transporter expression by A(2A)R, Aβ(1-42). enhanced the expression and density of astrocytic A(2A)R and decreased GLAST and GLT-I expression in astrocytes from wild type, but not from A(2A)R knockout mice. This impact of Aβ(1-42). on glutamate transporters and uptake, dependent on A(2A)R function, was also confirmed in an ex vivo astrocyte preparation (gliosomes) from rats intracerebroventricularly (icv) injected with Aβ(1-42). . These results provide the first demonstration for a direct key role of astrocytic A(2A)R in the ability of Aβ-induced impairment of glutamate uptake, which may underlie glutamatergic synaptic dysfunction and excitotoxicity in AD.

Vision is an important sense for humans, and visual impairment/blindness has a huge impact in daily life. The retina is a nervous tissue that is essential for visual processing since it possesses light sensors (photoreceptors) and performs a pre-processing of visual information. Thus, retinal cell dysfunction or degeneration affects visual ability and several general aspects of the day-to-day of a person’s lives. The retina has a blood–retinal barrier, which protects the tissue from a wide range of molecules or microorganisms. However, several agents, coming from systemic pathways, reach the retina and influence its function and survival. Pesticides are still used worldwide for agriculture, contaminating food with substances that could reach the retina. Natural products have also been used for therapeutic purposes and are another group of substances that can get to the retina. Finally, a wide number of medicines administered for different diseases can also affect the retina. The present review aimed to gather recent information about the hazard of these products to the retina, which could be used to encourage the search for more healthy, suitable, or less risky agents.