Efficient acquisition of rock mass parameters is a critical step for conducting numerical simulations in tunneling and ensuring the safety of subsequent construction. This paper proposes an intelligent back-analysis method for key rock mass parameters (Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, cohesion, and friction angle) based on excavation-induced deformation data, using a deformation database that incorporates multi-feature values from tunnel excavation. This study employs five machine learning algorithms with single-feature inputs and three deep neural networks (DNNs) with multi-feature inputs, with a particular focus on convolutional neural network (CNN) due to their superior performance in terms of both accuracy and efficiency. The results demonstrate that the CNN model incorporating excavation features achieves excellent performance in parameter back-analysis, with an R² of 0.99 and 97.8% of predictions having errors within 5%. Compared with machine learning models using single-feature inputs, the CNN-based approach improves predictive performance by an average of 13.9%. Furthermore, compared with other DNNs, the CNN consistently outperforms across various evaluation metrics. This study also investigates the CNN’s capability to predict rock mass parameters using deformation data from early-stage excavation. After ten excavation steps, 96.9% of test samples had prediction errors within 5%. Finally, the proposed method was validated using field-monitored deformation data from a real highway tunnel project, confirming the method’s effectiveness and practical applicability.