Low-intensity exercise with blood flow restriction (LI BFR) has been shown to release substances that play a key role in neuroplasticity and may be effective in improving rehabilitation outcomes in patients with neurodegenerative diseases. Researchers suggest that LI BFR engages high-threshold motor units even during low-intensity exercise, leading to increased motor unit end-state variability and a rapid onset of neuromuscular fatigue. However, the amplitude-frequency characteristics and motor unit recruitment strategies during LI BFR are not well understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of blood flow restriction on motor unit activation patterns during low-intensity exercise to elucidate the physiological mechanisms underlying this novel training approach. Participants with a mean age of 33 years were subjected to blood flow restriction during isometric wrist flexion. High-density surface EMG (HD sEMG) activity was recorded from both the flexor carpi radialis and palmaris longus muscles. The study shows that blood flow restriction significantly shifted motor unit activation to high threshold motor units. These findings highlight the need to investigate the long-term effects of LI BFR on motor unit coordination in clinical populations.

INTRODUCTION. Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are enzymes that regulate intracellular signalling by catalysing the hydrolysis of cyclic nucleotides. The commercial success of selective PDE5 inhibitors for erectile dysfunction and PDE4 inhibitors for respiratory and skin diseases has drawn the close attention of pharmaceutical companies to other PDEs as well. PDE10A, which is expressed in medium spiny neurons (MSNs) of the striatum, deserves special attention as a promising target in psychopharmacology.AIM. This study aimed to analyse existing preclinical and clinical data on the use of PDE10A inhibitors and to assess possible barriers to the development of medicinal products of this class in neuropsychopharmacology.DISCUSSION. Preclinical studies have shown that PDE10A inhibitors, which increase the levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) in MSNs, have antipsychotic and antiparkinsonian properties. Some researchers also believe that PDE10A inhibitors improve cognitive functions. Despite the promising results of preclinical studies, clinical trials of PDE10A inhibitors have not been successful. This review analyses the possible reasons for these failures, including a poor understanding of the function of striatal PDEs in both normal and pathological conditions, the possible development of tolerance to some effects of PDEs, the complex interactions of intracellular cAMP and cGMP signalling pathways, and the intricate workings of the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuits.CONCLUSIONS. Further research is needed to fully assess the therapeutic potential of PDE10A inhibitors, with a more detailed investigation of the mechanism of action of PDEs, the activity of MSNs, and the CSTC circuits. New data at these three levels of study (subcellular, cellular, and systemic) will create conditions for further development of PDE10A inhibitors.

Understanding the central nervous system responses to different threats of balance loss is instrumental for developments in behavioral neurophysiology and rehabilitation. Motor imagery (MI) and virtual reality (VR) are used to model postural threats. Cognitive–perceptual style, specifically field independence and field dependence, is known to modulate the postural response. However, data comparing responses to MI (internally generated threat) and VR (externally induced multisensory conflict) while accounting for cognitive–perceptual style remain insufficient. The degree of visual dependence, assessed using the Rod-and-Frame Test (RFT), was evaluated in 55 healthy young adults. Stabilographic parameters and surface electromyography were recorded during four stances (open eyes, closed eyes, MI of free fall, and VR simulation of free fall). At the systemic level, VR induced the most pronounced destabilization (q < 0.001). Greater RFT error (indicative of field dependence) was associated with the greatest instability (q < 0.01). At the neuromuscular level, VR was accompanied by increased gastrocnemius medialis activity (q < 0.0001). Micro-level analysis revealed significant changes in EMG signal complexity during VR and in association with RFT (q < 0.05 and q < 0.0001), suggesting differences in neuromuscular signal complexity. MI and VR differentially modulated postural control, with VR inducing stronger effects. Adaptations were detectable at multiple levels of adaptation, ranging from systemic destabilization to changes in neuromuscular coordination and micro-level muscle activity. Visual dependence was associated with greater instability. These data point to the potential value of accounting for individual variations in visual information use and highlight the need to further investigate these effects in clinical populations.

Aging disrupts postural control through impaired cognitive–motor integration, increasing fall risk. In this study, we examined whether sports training is associated with attenuated age-related balance decline. A total of 44 individuals participated: 24 were under 45 years and 20 were over 45 years; regardless of age, 24 had no sport experience and 20 had experience. Postural stability was assessed using a stabilometric target-test on firm and soft surfaces. Pronounced group differences emerged only on the firm surface; no effects were observed on the soft surface, which reduces proprioceptive input. The center of pressure (CoP) velocity fluctuation was significantly lower in both younger and sports-experienced groups (q < 0.05), indicating higher postural stability. Regression analysis further confirmed that athletes exhibit significantly lower CoP velocity (p < 0.0001) regardless of age. These data suggest that regular sports training may attenuate age-related postural decline, boosting cognitive–motor integration and neuromotor reserve.

Unilateral transtibial amputation (TTA) is associated with knee strength deficits and inter-limb asymmetry (ILA), but multi-velocity isokinetic profiling in competitive para-athletes remains limited. Eight competitive male para-athletes with unilateral TTA (C2–C4; body mass 68.9 ± 7.9 kg; 31.1 ± 10.4 months post-amputation) were assessed on an IsoMed 2000 dynamometer at 60, 180, 240, and 300°·s⁻¹. Peak torque (PT) was normalised to body mass. The intact limb served as an internal cohort reference (n = 8), while paired bilateral comparisons were available in four athletes (n = 4). Amputated-side PT was lower across all velocities, with flexion deficits of 31–42% and extension deficits of 33–39%. ILA was velocity-dependent, with minima at 240°·s⁻¹ for flexion and 300°·s⁻¹ for extension. H/Q showed a modest amputated-side upward shift at 60–240°·s⁻¹ (+2.5 to +8.0 pp), consistent with relative flexor preservation and a predominant extensor deficit. This pilot descriptive dataset supports future multi-velocity screening and controlled trials of velocity-matched resistance training while highlighting substantial between-athlete variability.