Nucleotides and cysteinyl‐leukotrienes (CysLTs) are unrelated signaling molecules inducing multiple effects through separate G‐protein‐coupled receptors: the P2Y and the CysLT receptors. Here we show that GPR17, a Gi‐coupled orphan receptor at intermediate phylogenetic position between P2Y and CysLT receptors, is specifically activated by both families of endogenous ligands, leading to both adenylyl cyclase inhibition and intracellular calcium increases. Agonist‐response profile, as determined by [35S]GTPγS binding, was different from that of already known CysLT and P2Y receptors, with EC50 values in the nanomolar and micromolar range, for CysLTs and uracil nucleotides, respectively. Both rat and human receptors are highly expressed in the organs typically undergoing ischemic damage, that is, brain, heart and kidney. In vivo inhibition of GPR17 by either CysLT/P2Y receptor antagonists or antisense technology dramatically reduced ischemic damage in a rat focal ischemia model, suggesting GPR17 as the common molecular target mediating brain damage by nucleotides and CysLTs. In conclusion, the deorphanization of GPR17 revealed a dualistic receptor for two endogenous unrelated ligand families. These findings may lead to dualistic drugs of previously unexplored therapeutic potential.

Tumor-infiltrating immune cells can be conditioned by molecules released within the microenvironment to thwart antitumor immune responses, thereby facilitating tumor growth. Among immune cells, neutrophils play an important protumorigenic role by favoring neoangiogenesis and/or by suppressing antitumor immune responses. Tumor-derived oxysterols have recently been shown to favor tumor growth by inhibiting dendritic cell migration toward lymphoid organs. We report that tumor-derived oxysterols recruit protumor neutrophils in a liver X receptor (LXR)–independent, CXCR2-dependent manner, thus favoring tumor growth by promoting neoangiogenesis and immunosuppression. We demonstrate that interfering with the oxysterol–CXCR2 axis delays tumor growth and prolongs the overall survival of tumor-bearing mice. These results identify an unanticipated protumor function of the oxysterol–CXCR2 axis and a possible target for cancer therapy.

Deciphering the mechanisms regulating the generation of new neurons and new oligodendrocytes, the myelinating cells of the central nervous system, is of paramount importance to address new strategies to replace endogenous damaged cells in the adult brain and foster repair in neurodegenerative diseases. Upon brain injury, the extracellular concentrations of nucleotides and cysteinyl-leukotrienes (cysLTs), two families of endogenous signaling molecules, are markedly increased at the site of damage, suggesting that they may act as “danger signals” to alert responses to tissue damage and start repair. Here we show that, in brain telencephalon, GPR17, a recently deorphanized receptor for both uracil nucleotides and cysLTs (e.g., UDP-glucose and LTD₄), is normally present on neurons and on a subset of parenchymal quiescent oligodendrocyte precursor cells. We also show that induction of brain injury using an established focal ischemia model in the rodent induces profound spatiotemporal-dependent changes of GPR17. In the lesioned area, we observed an early and transient up-regulation of GPR17 in neurons expressing the cellular stress marker heat shock protein 70. Magnetic Resonance Imaging in living mice showed that the in vivo pharmacological or biotechnological knock down of GPR17 markedly prevents brain infarct evolution, suggesting GPR17 as a mediator of neuronal death at this early ischemic stage. At later times after ischemia, GPR17 immuno-labeling appeared on microglia/macrophages infiltrating the lesioned area to indicate that GPR17 may also acts as a player in the remodeling of brain circuitries by microglia. At this later stage, parenchymal GPR17⁺ oligodendrocyte progenitors started proliferating in the peri-injured area, suggesting initiation of remyelination. To confirm a specific role for GPR17 in oligodendrocyte differentiation, the in vitro exposure of cortical pre-oligodendrocytes to the GPR17 endogenous ligands UDP-glucose and LTD₄ promoted the expression of myelin basic protein, confirming progression toward mature oligodendrocytes. Thus, GPR17 may act as a “sensor” that is activated upon brain injury on several embryonically distinct cell types, and may play a key role in both inducing neuronal death inside the ischemic core and in orchestrating the local remodeling/repair response. Specifically, we suggest GPR17 as a novel target for therapeutic manipulation to foster repair of demyelinating wounds, the types of lesions that also occur in patients with multiple sclerosis.

The developing and mature central nervous system contains neural precursor cells expressing the proteoglycan NG2. Some of these cells continuously differentiate to myelin-forming oligodendrocytes; knowledge of the destiny of NG2⁺ precursors would benefit from the characterization of new key functional players. In this respect, the G protein-coupled membrane receptor GPR17 has recently emerged as a new timer of oligodendrogliogenesis. Here, we used purified oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) to fully define the immunophenotype of the GPR17-expressing cells during OPC differentiation, unveil its native signaling pathway, and assess the functional consequences of GPR17 activation by its putative endogenous ligands, uracil nucleotides and cysteinyl leukotrienes (cysLTs). GPR17 presence was restricted to very early differentiation stages and completely segregated from that of mature myelin. Specifically, GPR17 decorated two subsets of slowly proliferating NG2⁺ OPCs: (i) morphologically immature cells expressing other early proteins like Olig2 and PDGF receptor-α, and (ii) ramified preoligodendrocytes already expressing more mature factors, like O4 and O1. Thus, GPR17 is a new marker of these transition stages. In OPCs, GPR17 activation by either uracil nucleotides or cysLTs resulted in potent inhibition of intracellular cAMP formation. This effect was counteracted by GPR17 antagonists and receptor silencing with siRNAs. Finally, uracil nucleotides promoted and GPR17 inhibition, by either antagonists or siRNAs, impaired the normal program of OPC differentiation. These data have implications for the in vivo behavior of NG2⁺ OPCs and point to uracil nucleotides and cysLTs as main extrinsic local regulators of these cells under physiological conditions and during myelin repair.

Herein we report on a novel series of multitargeted compounds obtained by linking together galantamine and memantine. The compounds were designed by taking advantage of the crystal structures of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in complex with galantamine derivatives. Sixteen novel derivatives were synthesized, using spacers of different lengths and chemical composition. The molecules were then tested as inhibitors of AChE and as binders of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor (NMDAR). Some of the new compounds were nanomolar inhibitors of AChE and showed micromolar affinities for NMDAR. All compounds were also tested for selectivity toward NMDAR containing the 2B subunit (NR2B). Some of the new derivatives showed a micromolar affinity for NR2B. Finally, selected compounds were tested using a cell-based assay to measure their neuroprotective activity. Three of them showed a remarkable neuroprotective profile, inhibiting the NMDA-induced neurotoxicity at subnanomolar concentrations (e.g., 5, named memagal, IC₅₀ = 0.28 nM).