Monoamine transporters (MATs) carry out neurotransmitter reuptake from the synaptic cleft, a key step in neurotransmission, which is targeted in the treatment of neurological disorders. Cholesterol (CHOL), a major component of the synaptic plasma membrane, has been shown to exhibit a modulatory effect on MATs. Recent crystal structures of the dopamine transporter (DAT) revealed the presence of two conserved CHOL-like molecules, suggesting a functional protein-CHOL direct interaction. Here, we present extensive atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of DAT in an outward-facing conformation. In the absence of bound CHOL, DAT undergoes structural changes reflecting early events of dopamine transport: transition to an inward-facing conformation. In contrast, in the presence of bound CHOL, these conformational changes are inhibited, seemingly by an immobilization of the intracellular interface of TM1a and TM5 by CHOL. We also provide evidence, from coarse grain MD simulations that the CHOL sites observed in the DAT crystal structures are preserved in all human transporters (dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine), suggesting that our findings might extend to the entire family. It has been revealed that the cellular membrane is an active contributor to biological processes occurring in and across it and can regulate the function of proteins embedded within it. Cholesterol (CHOL) plays a key role in these effects. Notably, CHOL affects neurotransmission. Neurotransmission occurs at the synapse and is central to a proper functioning of the human nervous system. In particular, monoamine transporters (MATs), key players in the process of stopping signaling, are primary targets for treatment of mental disorders. Herein, we address the intriguing mechanism by which the presence of CHOL affects the function of MATs. CHOL is known to impair the re-uptake of neurotransmitters from the synapse but the mechanism is not known. We looked at the possibility of CHOL effecting MATs by a direct interaction rather than through its effect on the biophysical properties of the embedding membrane. We present clear data indicative of conserved CHOL binding sites on all human MATs and further show how CHOL prevents conformational changes at the N-terminus of transmembrane helix 5 in the human dopamine transporter (hDAT), which we are able to confirm is associated with the outward-to-inward transition of MATs.

The human monoamine transporters facilitate the reuptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine from the synaptic cleft. Imbalance in monoaminergic neurotransmission is linked to various diseases including major depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease. Inhibition of the monoamine transporters is thus an important strategy for treatment of such diseases. The monoamine transporters are sodium-coupled transport proteins belonging to the neurotransmitter/Na+ symporter (NSS) family, and the publication of the first high-resolution structure of a NSS family member, the bacterial leucine transporter LeuT, in 2005, proved to be a major stepping stone for understanding this family of transporters. Structural data allows for the use of computational methods to study the monoamine transporters, which in turn has led to a number of important discoveries. The process of substrate translocation across the membrane is an intrinsically dynamic process. Molecular dynamics simulations, which can provide atomistic details of molecular motion on ns to ms timescales, are therefore well-suited for studying transport processes. In this review, we outline how molecular dynamics simulations have provided insight into the large scale motions associated with transport of the neurotransmitters, as well as the presence of external and internal gates, the coupling between ion and substrate transport, and differences in the conformational changes induced by substrates and inhibitors.

Selective inhibitors of the human serotonin transporter (hSERT) have been first-line treatment against depression for several decades. Recently, vortioxetine was approved as a new therapeutic option for the treatment of depression. Vortioxetine represents a new class of antidepressant drugs with a multimodal pharmacological profile that in addition to potent inhibition of hSERT include agonistic or antagonistic effects at different serotonin receptors. We used a combination of computational, chemical, and biological methods to decipher the molecular basis for high affinity binding of vortioxetine in hSERT. X-ray crystal structures of the bacterial amino acid transporter LeuT and the Drosophila melanogaster dopamine transporter were used to build homology models of hSERT. Comparative modeling and ligand docking suggest that vortioxetine can adopt several distinct binding modes within the central binding site of hSERT. To distinguish between the identified binding modes, we determined the effect of 57 funct...

The human serotonin transporter (hSERT) terminates serotonergic signaling through reuptake of neurotransmitter into presynaptic neurons and is a target for many antidepressant drugs. We describe here the development of a photoswitchable hSERT inhibitor, termed azo-escitalopram, that can be reversibly switched between trans and cis configurations using light of different wavelengths. The dark-adapted trans isomer was found to be significantly less active than the cis isomer, formed upon irradiation.

The 5-HT₃ receptor is a member of the Cys-loop receptor superfamily of ligand-gated ion channels and is a clinical target in a range of diseases. In the nervous system, the 5-HT₃ receptor mediates fast serotonergic neurotransmission by undergoing a series of conformational changes initiated by ligand-binding that lead to the rapid opening of an intrinsic cation-selective channel. However, despite the availability of high-resolution structures of a mouse 5-HT3 receptor, many important aspects of the mechanistic basis of 5-HT3 receptor function and modulation by drugs remain poorly understood. In particular, there is little direct evidence for the specific conformational changes predicted to occur during ligand-gated channel activation and desensitization. In the present study, we used voltage clamp fluorometry (VCF) to measure conformational changes in regions surrounding the orthosteric binding site of the human 5-HT_3A (h5-HT_3A) receptor during binding of 5-HT and different classes of 5-HT_3A receptor ligands. VCF utilizes parallel measurements of receptor currents with photon emission from fluorescent reporter groups covalently attached to specific positions in the receptor structure. Reporter groups that are highly sensitive to the local molecular environment can in real-time report conformational changes as changes in fluorescence that can be correlated with changes in receptor currents reporting the functional states of the channel. Within the loop C-, D-, and E-regions that surround the orthosteric binding site in the h5-HT3A receptor, we identify positions that are amenable to tagging with an environmentally sensitive reporter group that reports robust fluorescence changes upon 5-HT binding and receptor activation. We use these reporter positions to characterize the effect of ligand binding on the local structure of the orthosteric binding site by agonists, competitive antagonists, and allosterically acting channel activators. We observed that loop C appears to show distinct fluorescence changes for ligands of the same class, while loop D reports similar fluorescence changes for all ligands binding at the orthosteric site. In contrast, the loop E reporter position shows distinct changes for agonists, antagonists, and allosteric compounds, suggesting the conformational changes in this region are specific to ligand class. Interpretation of these results within the framework of current models of 5-HT_3A and Cys-loop receptor mechanisms are used to expand the understanding of how ligand binding in Cys-loop receptors relates to channel gating. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The 5HT3 receptor is an important ligand-gated ion channel and drug target in the central and peripheral nervous system. Determining how ligand binding induced conformational changes in the receptor is central for understanding the structural mechanisms underlying 5HT3 receptor function. Here, we employ voltage-gated fluorometry to characterize conformational changes in the extracellular domain of the human 5HT3 receptor to identify intra-receptor motions during binding of a range of 5HT3 receptor agonists and antagonists.