Inborn errors of immunity (IEIs), formerly referred to as primary immunodeficiencies (PID), represent a heterogeneous group of hereditary disorders that significantly increase patients’ susceptibility to severe and recurrent infections. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a pivotal role in host defense as fundamental components of innate immunity, while also linking it to adaptive immune responses. This review summarizes advances in understanding the involvement of TLRs in the pathogenesis of IEIs in children. It highlights genetic defects such as deficiencies in MyD88, IRAK-4, NEMO, and TLR3, which lead to distinct clinical phenotypes, for example, increased susceptibility to bacterial infections or herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) encephalitis. The review also examines more complex disorders, including chronic granulomatous disease (CGD), common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), and X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA), in which TLR signaling may be either impaired or dysregulated. This analysis demonstrates the growing importance of functional assays evaluating TLR activity as a diagnostic tool complementary to genetic testing, as well as their potential to precisely characterize immunological phenotypes. Furthermore, current therapeutic perspectives are discussed, including the use of TLR agonists, which have shown promising results in oncology, the role of gene therapy as a causal treatment option, and a proposed diagnostic algorithm incorporating TLR-based evaluation. Despite significant progress, substantial knowledge gaps remain, particularly regarding the full spectrum of TLR signaling abnormalities across IEI subtypes. The conclusions emphasize the need for large-scale, international studies to achieve a comprehensive understanding of pathogenic mechanisms and to develop more targeted and effective therapeutic interventions for children affected by these rare disorders.

Introduction and Purpose: Mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and stress-related conditions are major contributors to global disability. Growing evidence indicates that physical activity is an effective non-pharmacological strategy for preventing and managing these conditions. This review aims to summarize current knowledge on the impact of physical activity on mental health and the mechanisms through which it exerts its effects. Material and Method: A narrative review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar to identify studies from 2010-2025 examining physical activity and mental health outcomes in adults. Priority was given to randomized trials, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses exploring exercise-based interventions and their psychological or physiological effects. Results: The analyzed literature shows that regular physical activity - particularly aerobic and moderate-intensity exercise - supports mood regulation, enhances cognitive functioning, and increases resilience to stress. Reported mechanisms include neurobiological changes such as improved neurotransmitter balance, reduced inflammation, and enhanced neuroplasticity, alongside psychological benefits such as increased self-efficacy and reduced rumination. Structured exercise programs also demonstrate efficacy as adjuncts to psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy. Conclusions: Physical activity represents a valuable and evidence-based component of mental health promotion and treatment. Incorporating tailored exercise interventions into prevention strategies and clinical care may significantly improve psychological well-being and reduce the burden of mental health disorders

Introduction and Purpose:The cosmetics industry increasingly turns to natural ingredients that improve skin appearance and support its health. Echinacea, known for its immunomodulatory, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, is gaining popularity as an active substance in immunocosmetics — products combining care with immune support. This article reviews the dermatological potential of selected species, mainly E. purpurea, E. angustifolia and E. pallida, assessing their role in strengthening skin immunity, regeneration and protection against environmental factors. Material and Method:A qualitative review was performed using PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science. Only peer-reviewed papers from the last decade focused on Echinacea’s dermatological effects were included; studies lacking empirical data were excluded. Results:Echinacea contains key bioactive compounds such as polyphenols (e.g., chicoric acid), alkamides and polysaccharides, which act synergistically on the skin. They reduce inflammation, neutralize free radicals and support epidermal renewal. The extracts influence immune cells like Langerhans cells and keratinocytes, enhancing innate immunity. Due to antimicrobial activity, particularly against Cutibacterium acnes, Echinacea is useful in acne care. Cosmetics with its extracts improve hydration, elasticity and may reduce wrinkles. Conclusions:Echinacea shows notable potential in immunocosmetics thanks to its multifunctional effects on skin health. Further research and careful formulation are essential for its safe and effective use in modern skincare.

Cannabinoids derived from Cannabis sativa L., particularly cannabidiol (CBD) and minor cannabinoids such as cannabigerol (CBG), cannabichromene (CBC), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), and cannabidivarin (CBDV), have attracted increasing interest due to their potential therapeutic properties in dermatology. These compounds exert anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, sebostatic, and antiproliferative effects, which may benefit a range of skin conditions. Preclinical and early clinical data suggest that cannabinoids may effectively alleviate inflammation, pain, pruritus, and microbial infections in various dermatologic disorders. Topical and transdermal routes show promise due to improved safety and targeted delivery. CBD has demonstrated efficacy in reducing sebum production in acne, modulating immune responses in psoriasis, and accelerating wound healing in EB. However, findings for alopecia areata remain inconsistent. Emerging delivery systems, including CBG-based emulgels and CBD transdermal patches, may improve local bioavailability and clinical outcomes. Cannabinoids, especially CBD, exhibit significant potential as adjuvant or alternative treatments for inflammatory, infectious, and autoimmune skin diseases. Despite promising preliminary results, large-scale, randomized, placebo-controlled trials are needed to establish optimal dosing, formulations, safety, and long-term efficacy in clinical dermatology.

Introduction: Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is a rare genetic disorder whose most characteristic and dangerous symptom is massive obesity. It develops as a result of neurohormonal abnormalities, abnormal appetite regulation and reduced energy expenditure. Due to its multifactorial nature, the treatment of obesity in PWS presents particular clinical challenges. Materials and methods: A review of selected literature in the PubMed database was conducted, using the following keywords: “Prader Willie Syndrom”, “Phisical excercise”, “Obesity”,”Treatment” Summary: This paper discusses the main mechanisms leading to the development of obesity in PWS, such as hypothalamic dysfunction, endocrine disruption (ghrelin, leptin, GH) and changes in body composition. Current therapeutic strategies - nutritional therapy adapted to the developmental stage of the patient, growth hormone treatment and the potential use of anti-obesity drugs - were analysed. Special attention was given to the role of physical activity, which, despite its limited effect on body weight, significantly improves fitness, muscle strength, body composition and quality of life in patients. Conclusions: The management of obesity in PWS requires an individualised, multidirectional approach based on collaboration between the specialist team and the family. Given the limited efficacy of available therapies, further research is needed into new treatments - both pharmacological and non-pharmacological - that are better adapted to the metabolic and behavioural specificities of this patient group.

Background:Chronic low-grade inflammation and immune dysregulation contribute to cardiometabolic, autoimmune and infectious diseases. Dietary patterns, particularly plant-based diets, may influence these processes through metabolic, microbial and nutrient-mediated mechanisms. Aim:To summarise current evidence on how plant-based diets affect systemic inflammation, immune activity, gut microbiota–immune interactions and clinical outcomes in infection and autoimmune disease. Methods:A narrative review of studies from PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar, including randomised trials, cohorts, cross-sectional analyses, systematic reviews, meta-analyses and mechanistic or microbiome-focused research. Findings were synthesised qualitatively. Results:Healthful plant-based diets are consistently associated with lower CRP, IL-6, TNF-α and other inflammatory markers. Mechanistic studies suggest roles for plant nutrients, microbial short-chain fatty acids and reduced ectopic fat in improving immune regulation. Clinical evidence indicates potential reductions in respiratory infections, asthma exacerbations, COVID-19 severity and some autoimmune conditions. Benefits depend on overall diet quality; processed plant-based diets show limited advantages. Conclusions:Plant-based dietary patterns may beneficially modulate inflammation and support immune function, potentially lowering infection-related and autoimmune risks. Evidence remains limited by heterogeneous definitions and short study duration. Well-designed plant-based diets represent a promising non-pharmacological strategy to improve immune and inflammatory health.