Grain filling is a critical process for improving crop production under adverse conditions caused by climate change. Here, using a quantitative method, we quantified post-anthesis source–sink relationships of a large dataset to assess the contribution of remobilized pre-anthesis assimilates to grain growth for both biomass and nitrogen. The dataset came from 13 years of semi-controlled field experimentation, in which six bread wheat genotypes were grown at plot scale under contrasting temperature, water, and nitrogen regimes. On average, grain biomass was ~10% higher than post-anthesis above-ground biomass accumulation across regimes and genotypes. Overall, the estimated relative contribution (%) of remobilized assimilates to grain biomass became increasingly significant with increasing stress intensity, ranging from virtually nil to 100%. This percentage was altered more by water and nitrogen regimes than by temperature, indicating the greater impact of water or nitrogen regimes relative to high temperatures under our experimental conditions. Relationships between grain nitrogen demand and post-anthesis nitrogen uptake were generally insensitive to environmental conditions, as there was always significant remobilization of nitrogen from vegetative organs, which helped to stabilize the amount of grain nitrogen. Moreover, variations in the relative contribution of remobilized assimilates with environmental variables were genotype dependent. Our analysis provides an overall picture of post-anthesis source–sink relationships and pre-anthesis assimilate contributions to grain filling across (non-)environmental factors, and highlights that designing wheat adaptation to climate change should account for complex multifactor interactions.

Elevated CO₂ concentration in the air (e[CO₂]) decreases stomatal density (SD) and stomatal conductance (g_s) where abscisic acid (ABA) may play a role, yet the underlying mechanism remains largely elusive. We investigated the effects of e[CO₂] (800 ppm) on leaf gas exchange and water relations of two tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) genotypes, Ailsa Craig (WT) and its ABA-deficient mutant (flacca). Compared to plants grown at ambient CO₂ (400 ppm), e[CO₂] stimulated photosynthetic rate in both genotypes, while depressed the g_s only in WT. SD showed a similar response to e[CO₂] as g_s, although the change was not significant. e[CO₂] increased leaf and xylem ABA concentrations and xylem sap pH, where the increases were larger in WT than in flacca. Although leaf water potential was unaffected by CO₂ growth environment, e[CO₂] lowered osmotic potential, hence tended to increase turgor pressure particularly for WT. e[CO₂] reduced hydraulic conductance of leaf and root in WT but not in flacca, which was associated with downregulation of gene expression of aquaporins. It is concluded that ABA-mediated regulation of g_s, SD, and gene expression of aquaporins coordinates the whole-plant hydraulics of tomato grown at different CO₂ environments.

The interactive effects of CO₂ elevation, N fertilization, and reduced irrigation regimes on fruit yield (FY) and quality in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) were investigated in a split-root pot experiment. The plants were grown in two separate climate-controlled greenhouse cells at atmospheric [CO₂] of 400 and 800 ppm, respectively. In each cell, the plants were fertilized at either 100 or 200 mg N kg^-1 soil and were either irrigated to full water holding capacity [i.e., a volumetric soil water content of 18%; full irrigation (FI)], or using 70% water of FI to the whole pot [deficit irrigation (DI)] or alternately to only half of the pot [partial root-zone irrigation (PRI)]. The yield and fruit quality attributes mainly from sugars (sucrose, fructose, and glucose) and organic acids (OAs; citric acid and malic acid) to various ionic (NH₄⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, NO₃^-, SO₄^2-, and PO₄^3-) concentrations in fruit juice were determined. The results indicated that lower N supply reduced fruit number and yield, whereas it enhanced some of the quality attributes of fruit as indicated by greater firmness and higher concentrations of sugars and OAs. Elevated [CO₂] (e[CO₂]) attenuated the negative influence of reduced irrigation (DI and PRI) on FY. Principal component analysis revealed that the reduced irrigation regimes, especially PRI, in combination with e[CO₂] could synergistically improve the comprehensive quality of tomato fruits at high N supply. These findings provide useful knowledge for sustaining tomato FY and quality in a future drier and CO₂-enriched environment.

Extreme climatic events, such as heat waves, cold snaps and drought spells, related to global climate change, have become more frequent and intense in recent years. Acclimation of plant physiological processes to changes in environmental conditions is a key component of plant adaptation to climate change. We assessed the temperature response of leaf photosynthetic parameters in wheat grown under contrasting water regimes and growth temperatures (T_growth). Two independent experiments were conducted under controlled conditions. In Experiment 1, two wheat genotypes were subjected to well‐watered or drought‐stressed treatments; in Experiment 2, the two water regimes combined with high, medium and low T_growth were imposed on one genotype. Parameters of a biochemical C₃‐photosynthesis model were estimated at six leaf temperatures for each factor combination. Photosynthesis acclimated more to drought than to T_growth. Drought affected photosynthesis by lowering its optimum temperature (T_opt) and the values at T_opt of light‐saturated net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, mesophyll conductance, the maximum rate of electron transport (J_max) and the maximum rate of carboxylation by Rubisco (V_cmax). T_opt for V_cmax was up to 40°C under well‐watered conditions but 24–34°C under drought. The decrease in photosynthesis under drought varied among T_growth but was similar between genotypes. The temperature response of photosynthetic quantum yield under drought was partly attributed to photorespiration but more to alternative electron transport. All these changes in biochemical parameters could not be fully explained by the changed leaf nitrogen content. Further model analysis showed that both diffusional and biochemical parameters of photosynthesis and their thermal sensitivity acclimate little to T_growth, but acclimate considerably to drought and the combination of drought and T_growth. The commonly used modelling approaches, which typically consider the response of diffusional parameters, but ignore acclimation responses of biochemical parameters to drought and T_growth, strongly overestimate leaf photosynthesis under variable temperature and drought.