There has been an increasing need for the risk assessment of external environmental hazards in children because they are more sensitive to hazardous chemical exposure than adults. Therefore, the development of general exposure factors is required for appropriate risk assessment in Korean children. This study aimed to determine the general exposure factors among Korean children aged ≤18 years. We developed the recommended exposure factors across five categories: physiological variables, inhalation rates, food and drinking water intake, time–activity patterns, and soil and dust ingestion. National databases were used, and direct measurements and questionnaire surveys of representative samples were performed to calculate the inhalation rate, water intake, and soil ingestion rate. With regard to the time–activity patterns, the daily inhalation rates ranged from 9.49 m³/day for children aged 0–2 years to 14.98 m³/day for those aged 16–18 years. This study found that Korean children spent an average of 22.64 h indoors, 0.63 h outdoors, and 0.73 h in-transit on weekdays. The general exposure factors of Korean children were studied for the first time, and these results could be used to assess children’s exposure and risk. They also suggest the differences compared with the results of international results.

Following widespread use of humidifier disinfectants (HDs) in South Korea from the late 1990s until their recall in 2011, clusters of respiratory illnesses emerged. While causality has been established for severe cases, evidence linking non-specific or chronic respiratory diseases to HD exposure remains insufficient for recognition or compensation. We aimed to assess the relationship between HD exposure and a broad spectrum of respiratory diseases and determine the latency of disease onset. We linked national health insurance data to self-reported exposure records for 6061 individuals who filed compensation claims for HD-related health damage. We conducted individual-level interrupted time series (ITS) analysis over a 15-year period (60 months before and 120 months after first HD use). We evaluated eight respiratory diseases and calculated excess rate ratios (ERRs) and latency patterns by disease type, severity, and HD chemical ingredients. Significantly elevated risks were observed for all eight diseases post-HD exposure. The strongest associations were observed for pneumonia (ERR=14.04), asthma (ERR=8.54), and interstitial lung disease (ERR=8.26). Most disease onset was typically concentrated within the first few years post-exposure but extended up to a decade for chronic conditions. ERRs stratified by chemical type revealed distinct ingredient-specific risk profiles. Despite potential collider bias, comparative analyses using national population data showed consistency in relative risk estimates. This study provides robust epidemiologic evidence for the long-term health consequences of HD exposure. The findings support revisions in compensation policies and underscore the need for extended health surveillance of affected individuals. However, the results should be interpreted with caution due to potential collider bias and possible overrepresentation of affected individuals.

Reliable exposure factors are essential to determine health risks posed by chemicals in consumer products. We analyzed five risk-concerned product categories (anti-fogging, dye, disinfectant, repellent, and preservative products) for 13 products (three car anti-fogging products, a lens anti-fogging product, two car dye products, two drain disinfectants, an air conditioner disinfectant, a chlorine-based disinfectant, a fabric repellent, an insect repellent for food, and a wood preservative) considered to be of high risk in order to determine exposure factors via web surveys and estimation of amount of product. Among the 3000 participants (1482 (49%) men) aged ≥19 years, drain disinfectants were used most frequently (38.2%); the rate of usage of the other products ranged between 1.1–24.0%. The usage rates for the consumer products differed by sex, age, income, and education. Some consumer products such as car and lens anti-fogging products, chlorine-based disinfectants, fabric repellents, and drain disinfectants were regularly used more than once a month, while car dye products, air conditioner disinfectants, insect repellents for food, and wood preservatives were not regularly used owing to the specific product purposes and seasonal needs. Our results could be used for managing or controlling chemical substances in consumer products and conducting accurate exposure assessments.

Eun Seong Song, Boluwatife Olamide Dareowolabi, Tak-soo Kim, Seung Chul Ahn, Seungho Lee, Young-Seoub Hong, and Jin Hee Kim. J Environ Health Sci. 2025;51:395-409. https://doi.org/10.5668/JEHS.2025.51.6.395

Background: The Republic of Korean humidifier disinfectant disaster, involving toxic chemical exposure, constitutes a major social disaster causing severe trauma. While physical and psychological difficulties are documented, this study investigated the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and survivors’ daily life adaptation across children, adolescents, and adults, examining PTSD’s mediating role. Methods: The sample included 834 participants (417 exposed survivors and 417 unaffected individuals), divided into three age groups. PTSD symptoms and life adaptation were measured via self-reports. Multigroup Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was utilized to test the indirect associations among exposure, PTSD symptoms, and life adaptation, and to examine age-group comparisons. Results: Survivors in all age groups reported higher PTSD symptoms and lower adaptive functioning compared to unaffected individuals, with the largest PTSD mean difference found in children and adults. Multigroup SEM confirmed that exposure positively impacted PTSD symptoms, and PTSD symptoms negatively impacted life adaptation across all ages. PTSD symptoms significantly mediated the exposure-life adaptation link in all groups. Critically, the direct effect of exposure on life adaptation was significant only in adults, indicating a full mediation via PTSD symptoms in children and adolescents. Conclusions: Exposure to toxic humidifier disinfectants is linked to life adaptation difficulties through elevated PTSD symptoms. These findings emphasize addressing trauma-related symptoms and suggest the utility of developmentally sensitive psychological interventions. Limitations include reliance on self- and parent-reported measures rather than clinical diagnoses, and the lack of control for external contextual factors (e.g., policy changes, media exposure).