With the launch of an increasing number of satellites to establish complex satellite communication networks, automatic modulation recognition (AMR) plays a crucial role in satellite signal recognition and spectrum management. However, most existing AMR models struggle to handle signals in such complex satellite communication environments. Therefore, this paper proposes an adaptive multi-rate atrous convolution network with residual attentional feature fusion (RAFF-AMACNet) that employs the adaptive multi-rate atrous convolution (AMAC) module to adaptively extract and dynamically join more prominent multi-scale features, enhancing the model’s time-series context awareness and generating robust feature maps. On this basis, the pyramid backbone consists of multiple stacked residual attentional feature fusion (RAFF) modules, featuring a dual-attention collaborative mechanism designed to mitigate feature map shifts and increase the separation between feature clusters of different classes under significant Doppler effects and nonlinear influences. On our independently constructed RML24 dataset, a general-purpose dataset tailored for satellite cognitive radio systems, simulation results indicate that at a signal-to-noise ratio of 0 dB, the modulation recognition accuracy reaches 92.99%.