Aims: Air quality changes with human health risk assessment were investigated. Methods: The measurement results obtained by the Regional Environmental Protection Inspectorate (REPI) in Kraków and our deposited particulate-matter (PM) analysis, as well as United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) methodology of risk assessment were used in the study. Results: Annual pollutant contents kept decreasing, with the exception of O₃. However, the permissible annual levels were exceeded in the cases of PM10, PM2.5, and NO₂. Increased contents of SO₂, CO, C₆H₆, PM10, and PM2.5, as well as of As, Pb, Cd, Ni, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in PM particles during winter months indicated that house heating was the source of pollution. Due to no significant change in the monthly NO₂ contents, this measurement was used as an indicator of traffic sources of pollution. In winter months, the allowable 24 h PM2.5 and PM10 contents were constantly exceeded. PM was identified as the most significant air pollutant. Enrichment factors revealed that deposited PM was enriched with heavy metals. The potential ecological risk (ERI) was determined to be very high for Cd, considerable for Zn, and low for As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Tl. The total non-carcinogenic risk indices (HQ) for both adults (HQ = 15.0) and children (HQ = 26.4) exceeded the acceptable value of 1. The total carcinogenic risk indices (CR) for both adults (CR = 1.51 × 10⁻⁴) and children (CR = 1.77 × 10⁻⁴) exceeded the acceptable level of 1 × 10⁻⁴. Conclusions: In the years 2005–2020, a general decreasing tendency of annual pollutant contents was observed. However, the permissible contaminant contents were still exceeded. PM2.5, BaP, PM10, and NO₂ were determined as the most dangerous pollutants in inhalational pathway.

Sorption experiments of the Cd, Zn, and Pb(II) ions from aqueous solutions on waste dolomite powder were investigated. Waste dolomite powder is inconvenient during storage due to fine particle size; therefore, its practical application is needed. The sorption experiments were conducted with variables: initial metal concentration (500, 1000, and 2000 mg/dm³) in single- and multi-element solutions, adsorbent dose (0.5, 1, and 2 g), and contact time (45, 90, and 180 min). Results showed that dolomite powder removed all ions from experimental solutions. For multi-element solution, Pb(II) was adsorbed almost in 100% at the initial concentration equal to 2000 mg/dm³. For Cd and Zn, sorption properties decreased with the increase in the initial metal concentration and the maximum values at the initial metal concentration of 500 mg/dm³ were 42 and 47%, respectively. The results suggest that waste dolomite powder can be considered for application as sorbent in wastewater purification.

Health risk associated with the exposure to the polluted atmospheric air inhalation was estimated for the residents of Kraków, Poland. The air pollution concentration data were obtained from the air-quality monitoring system of the city in 2007–2016. The carcinogenic risk of the studied subpopulations was not acceptable under the formula of C₆H₆ > BaP > As(PM10) > Cd(PM10) > Pb(PM10) > Ni(PM10). The total carcinogenic risk (Rt) amounted to 3.04E−04 for children, 2.22E−04 for infants, 1.45E−04 for women, and 1.22E−04 for men. The same risk was calculated for the top three locations of the monitoring stations in this respect, within the city of Kraków: Kurdwanów Housing Estate, Nowa Huta district, and Krasińskiego Av. Non-carcinogenic risk in the case of all six monitoring stations and in respect of all the studied subpopulations, resulting from the exposure to PM10 and for NO₂ for all stations in case of children and infants, as well as, for adults at Krasińskiego Av. and Dietla Str. stations was rated medium. For C₆H₆ in the case of adults, children, and infants the risk was rated low. The total risk (HI) of non-carcinogenic pollution was rated medium and ranged as follows: 6.53 for children, 4.70 for infants, 3.19 for women, and 2.67 for men. That type of risk was decreasing at the station locations as follows: Krasińskiego Av. > Dietla Str. > Nowa Huta district > Kurdwanów Housing Estate > Złoty Róg Str. > Piastów Housing Estate.

Agricultural soil samples were collected from the areas where edible plants had been cultivated in southern Poland. The PHE content decreased in proportion to the median value specified in brackets (mg/kg d.m.) as follows: Zn (192) > Pb (47.1) > Cr (19.6) > Cu (18.8) > Ni (9.91) > As (5.73) > Co (4.63) > Sb (0.85) > Tl (0.04) > Cd (0.03) > Hg (0.001) > Se (< LOQ). No PHE concentrations exceeded the permissible levels defined in the Polish law. The PHE solubility (extracted with CaCl₂) in the total concentration ranged in the following order: Fe (3.3%) > Cd (2.50%) > Ni (0.75%) > Zn (0.48%) > Cu (0.19%) > Pb (0.10%) > Cr (0.03%). The soil contamination indices revealed moderate contamination with Zn, ranging from uncontaminated to moderately contaminated with Pb, and, practically, no contamination with other PHEs was identified. The ecological risk indices revealed that soils ranged from uncontaminated to slightly contaminated with Zn, Pb, As, Cu, and Ni. The PCA indicated natural sources of origin of Co, Cu, Hg, Sb, Zn, Cr, and Pb, as well as anthropogenic sources of origin of Cd, Ni, As, and Tl. The human health risk assessment (HHRA) for adults and children decreased in the following order of exposure pathways: ingestion > dermal contact > inhalation of soil particles. The total carcinogenic risk values for both adults and children were at the acceptable level under residential (1.62E−05 and 6.39E−05) and recreational scenario (5.41E−06 and 2.46E−05), respectively, as well as for adults in agricultural scenario (1.45E−05). The total non-carcinogenic risk values for both adults and children under residential scenario (1.63E−01 and 4.55E−01, respectively), under recreational scenario (2.88E−01 and 6.69E−01, respectively) and for adults (1.03E−01) under agricultural scenario indicated that adverse health effects were not likely to be observed. Investigated soils were fully suitable for edible plant cultivation.

Chemical risk assessment in the context of the risk analysis framework was initially designed to evaluate the impact of hazardous substances or xenobiotics on human health. As the need of multiple stressors assessment was revealed to be more reliable regarding the occurrence and severity of the adverse effects in the exposed organisms, the cumulative risk assessment started to be the recommended approach. As toxicant mixtures and their “cocktail effects” are considered to be main hazards, the most important exposure for these xenobiotics would be of dietary and environmental origin. In fact, even a more holistic prism should currently be considered. In this sense, the definition of One Health refers to simultaneous actions for improving human, animal, and environmental health through transdisciplinary cooperation. Global policies necessitate going beyond the classical risk assessment for guaranteeing human health through actions and implementation of the One Health approach. In this context, a new perspective is proposed for the integration of microbiome biomarkers and next generation probiotics potentially impacting and modulating not only human health, but plant, animal health, and the environment.

The influence of environmental pollution on the heavy metal content in oolong teas from the Fujian Province, China, and the health risk for the Polish consumers were studied. Average contents of the metals in made oolong tea leaves were (mg kg⁻¹): Al 1452, Cd 0.08, Co 0.23, Cr 1.59, Cu 10.5, Fe 140, Hg 0.10, Mn 1465, Mo 0.63, Ni 3.45, Pb 1.99, Sb 0.78, Se 5.15, Sn 3.16, Tl 0.28, and Zn 26.9. The metals easily released from leaves to infusions were: Tl, Se, Cd, Sn, Sb, Ni, Al, and Pb. No concentration of As, Hg, Mo, or Pb was found in the first infusion and no As, Co, Hg, or Mo was found in the second one. The hazard quotient values for particular metals found in the infusions and tea leaves and the appraised combined hazard index (HI) amounted to <1. The highest HI values, resulting from the consumption of both infusions, did not exceed 5.88E-03, or 6.94E-04a in the case of tea leaves. No health hazard for the Polish consumers of oolong teas was identified at any of the examined stages of consumption. However, we recommend discarding the first tea infusion to reduce the metal concentrations before consumption.