Recently, mammalian orthoreoviruses (MRVs) were detected for the first time in European bats, and the closely related strain SI-MRV01 was isolated from a child with severe diarrhoea in Slovenia. Genetically similar strains have also been reported from other mammals, which reveals their wide host distribution. The aim of this study was to retrospectively investigate the occurrence and genetic diversity of MRVs in bats in Slovenia, from samples obtained throughout the country in 2008 to 2010, and in 2012 and to investigate the occurrence of the novel SI-MRV01 MRV variant in Slovenian bats. The detection of MRVs in bat guano was based on broad-range RT-PCR and specific bat MRV real-time RT-PCR. Subsequently, MRV isolates were obtained from cell culture propagation, with detailed molecular characterisation through whole-genome sequencing. Overall, bat MRVs were detected in 1.9% to 3.8% of bats in 2008, 2009 and 2012. However, in 2010 the prevalence was 33.0%, which defined an outbreak of the single SI-MRV01 strain. Here, we report on the identification of five MRV isolates of different serotypes that are designated as SI-MRV02, SI-MRV03, SI-MRV04, SI-MRV05 and SI-MRV06. There is high genetic variability between these characterised isolates, with evident genome reassortment seen across their genome segments. In conclusion, we have confirmed the presence of the SI-MRV01 strain in a Slovenian bat population. Moreover, according to genetic characterisation of S1 genome segment, all three MRV serotypes were present in the bat population. In this study, five independent MRV isolates were obtained and detailed whole genome analysis revealed high diversity between them. This study generates new information about the epidemiology and molecular characteristics of emerging bat MRV variants, and provides important molecular data for further studies of their pathogenesis and evolution.

Staphylococcus epidermidis cleanroom strains are often exposed to sub-inhibitory concentrations of disinfectants, including didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC). Consequently, they can adapt or even become tolerant to them. RNA-sequencing was used to investigate adaptation and tolerance mechanisms of S. epidermidis cleanroom strains (SE11, SE18), with S. epidermidis SE11Ad adapted and S. epidermidis SE18To tolerant to DDAC. Adaptation to DDAC was identified with up-regulation of genes mainly involved in transport (thioredoxin reductase [pstS], the arsenic efflux pump [gene ID, SE0334], sugar phosphate antiporter [uhpT]), while down-regulation was seen for the Agr system (agrA, arC, agrD, psm, SE1543), for enhanced biofilm formation. Tolerance to DDAC revealed the up-regulation of genes associated with transporters (L-cysteine transport [tcyB]; uracil permease [SE0875]; multidrug transporter [lmrP]; arsenic efflux pump [arsB]); the down-regulation of genes involved in amino-acid biosynthesis (lysine [dapE]; histidine [hisA]; methionine [metC]), and an enzyme involved in peptidoglycan, and therefore cell wall modifications (alanine racemase [SE1079]). We show for the first time the differentially expressed genes in DDAC-adapted and DDAC-tolerant S. epidermidis strains, which highlight the complexity of the responses through the involvement of different mechanisms.

Edible insects have a large potential to be an alternative source of proteins for human consumption. Lactic acid fermentation can further increase availability of proteins as well as increase functional value of substrates. Thus, the study aimed to microbiologically and biochemically characterise house crickets ( Acheta domesticus ) and mealworm larvae ( Tenebrio molitor ) before and after lactic acid fermentation. Both insects were shown as a suitable substrate for fermentation which lasted 48 hours. Results of microbiological characterisation using culture-dependent microbiological methods show that reared, lyophilized and milled insects have fairly high viable microbial counts determined as aerobic (>7.00 log CFU/g) and anaerobic (>6 log CFU/g) mesophilic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria (>6 log CFU/g) and enterococci (>5 log CFU/g) prior fermentations and all counts were even higher after fermentations, but no pathogens were detected in any sample. High-throughput 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing revealed that most of bacteria (>96% relative abundance) in insects’ prior fermentation are represented by Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroides and Actinobacteria and at genus level Enterococcus , Lactonifactor , Clostridium and Klebsiella dominated in house crickets, while in mealworm larvae Enterococcus , Erwinia and Pantoea were the most abundant along with Salmonella which relative abundance was reduced by nearly 100× with fermentations. Regardless of the type of insect, fermentations using the Lb. plantarum starter culture or meat starter culture resulted in the dominance of Lactobacillus , Pediococcus and Enterococcus . In samples fermented with no addition of starter culture, the same bacterial genera still prevailed, suggesting that the native bacteria ( Ped. pentosaceus , Lb. graminis , Lb. sakei in both insects, and Ent. faecalis in house crickets and Ent. avium in mealworm larvae) played an important role in all fermentations. In spite of this both fermented insects differed in lactic acid concentration, free amino groups level and antioxidative activity, which were higher for mealworm larvae.

The aim of the study was to investigate the early response of apple fruit infected with Penicillium expansum (P. expansum) to blue light-emitting diode (LED) light (BLL) irradiation. To focus our study on the interaction between apple fruit, the pathogen, and BLL, the effect of BLL was also studied on apples without P. expansum and P. expansum grown on malt extract agar (MEA). Transcriptome analysis revealed that the most pronounced responses among biological processes were observed in inoculated apples under BLL. The upregulated processes included water transport, response to heat, and response to high light intensity. The defence response of apples was enhanced by the upregulation of thaumatin-like proteins and caffeic acid 3-O-methyltransferase, while the cellular response to phosphate deficiency and the regulation of multicellular organism development were downregulated. In P. expansum grown on apples under BLL, transcriptome analysis revealed downregulation of genes related to signalling, response to organic compounds, and regulation of metabolic and biosynthetic processes, while genes involved in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites were upregulated. In addition, the expression of patulin cluster genes was predominantly downregulated in P. expansum. The significant upregulation of genes related to cryptochrome inhibition, defence response, and caffeic acid metabolism in apples under BLL, together with the reduced virulence of P. expansum, contributes to the inhibition of fungal growth.