Current dietary patterns based on general consumption trends may not fully capture factors influencing arterial stiffness, a subclinical marker of cardiovascular disease (CVD). We aimed to identify data-driven dietary patterns and evaluate their associations with arterial stiffness in a population without known CVD. In this cross-sectional study of 1155 adults, food choices from a 16-item questionnaire were collected and brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (baPWV) was measured as the arterial stiffness indicator. Multiple correspondence analysis followed by hierarchical clustering on principal components identified dietary patterns, and generalized linear models were used to assessed their associations with baPWV. Three dietary patterns were identified, mainly distinguished by whole grains, tubers, smoked foods, and salty foods. Compared with the Chinese-adapted Western diet (high smoked/salty foods intake), the Chinese-adapted Mediterranean diet (high whole grains/tubers intake, β = −0.30, 95% CI: −0.49 to −0.10) and conventional Chinese urban diet (low consumption of four key distinguishing components, β = −0.23, 95% CI: −0.40 to −0.07) were associated with lower baPWV. Despite complex dietary behaviors, simple food-choice data enabled identification of dietary patterns associated with arterial stiffness. However, given the cross-sectional design, these findings should be interpreted as exploratory associations rather than causal effects.