Phosphorus is essential to environmental systems because it affects both agricultural productivity and ecological balance. Since it contributes to eutrophication and pollution problems, its existence in a variety of environmental matrices, including soil, water, and air, necessitates precise and effective determination methods for monitoring and managing its levels. This review paper provides an extensive overview of the latest advancements in analytical techniques for measuring phosphorus in environmental samples. We investigate sophisticated spectroscopic, chromatographic, and electrochemical techniques in addition to conventional approaches like colorimetric analysis. Innovative techniques such as mass spectrometry (MS), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy are also highlighted in this study, along with newly developed technologies such as biosensors, lab-on-a-chip devices, and nanotechnology-based techniques. Real-time and field-deployable monitoring technologies are also covered, with a focus on their advantages and usefulness. Among the techniques reviewed, XRF and colorimetry methods have proven to be the most reliable due to their precision, cost-effectiveness, and adaptability for different sample matrices. While emerging spectroscopic and electrochemical techniques offer promising alternatives, further validation and standardization are needed for routine environmental monitoring. Future research should focus on integrating automated and high-throughput techniques to enhance monitoring capabilities further.

Due to their remarkable adsorptive qualities, low cost, and wide availability, iron oxides and hydroxides have attracted a lot of interest as efficient materials for the removal of heavy metals from wastewater. The mechanisms by which iron-based minerals, such as ferrihydrite, magnetite, haematite and goethite interact with heavy metals through ion exchange, co-precipitation, and adsorption are covered in detail in this chapter. In order to maximise metal uptake efficiency, the importance of surface chemistry, particle size and mineral crystallinity is emphasised. This study critically examines developments in iron oxide functionalisation and modification to improve their capacity and selectivity for particular metals, including cadmium, lead and arsenic. While there are naturally occurring iron oxides/hydroxides, it is possible to synthesise them, coupling the synthesis with surface modifications, and these are usually monitored or verified using easily accessible instruments such as X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). This integration of the iron oxides/hydroxides with materials in nanotechnology and polymers has been beneficial for the removal of both heavy metals and other pollutants, such as organic ones, which highlights the versatility of the materials. The ability of the materials to be regenerated for further use makes them attractive in the wastewater treatment industry and in terms of environmental beneficiation. This chapter, therefore, provides a comprehensive analysis of iron oxides and hydroxides, highlighting their crucial role in developing sustainable wastewater treatment systems and reducing heavy metal pollution.

The recovery of vital minerals can be achieved by electrochemical methods, which are flexible and efficient approaches to satisfy the growing demands of technological advancements and the green economy. In this chapter, the basic ideas and real-world uses of electrochemical techniques such as electrowinning, electrorefining, and electrolysis in mineral recovery are examined. Lithium, cobalt, rare earth elements, and other important minerals can be selectively recovered from ores, industrial waste, and recycled materials. The study critically examines how electrode design, electrolyte composition, and operating conditions might maximize recovery efficiency. Recent innovations like membrane-based separation, ionic liquid integration, and green energy-powered systems are highlighted for their potential to increase sustainability and reduce environmental impact. Emerging methods for overcoming these obstacles are discussed along with challenges, including energy consumption, scalability, and handling complicated matrices. This chapter highlights the importance of electrochemical methods in the circular economy and their crucial role in protecting vital mineral resources for upcoming industrial and technological breakthroughs by offering a thorough review.

In a variety of industries, from the automotive and aerospace sectors to tiny biomedical devices and implants inside the human body, coating procedures offer protection to a particular portion or section of a structure exposed to severe and corrosive environments. Special surface treatments are needed to attain the right characteristics on metal surfaces, especially steel surfaces. The most common surface treatment methods are surface coatings, although there are other methods as well. Numerous properties, including enhanced surface hardness, resistance to wear and corrosion, modifications in wettability, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and others, can be offered by coatings. Various surface coating methods are employed depending on the intended usage. The impact of coating processing techniques on surface protection is a crucial topic in materials science and engineering since the performance, durability, and applicability of the coating are all greatly affected by the processing method selection.

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a persistent environmental challenge resulting from mining activities, characterized by low pH and high concentrations of sulfates and toxic metals. This chapter examines cutting-edge green technologies for treating AMD, with a focus on ecologically benign, economical, and sustainable methods. In addition to new smart technologies like machine learning and AI-driven monitoring systems that allow for real-time treatment optimization and predictive management, it highlights recent developments in the use of bio-based materials, alkaline industrial by-products, constructed wetlands, and advanced membrane systems. In addition to reducing the environmental hazards associated with AMD, these green innovations facilitate resource recovery, such as metal extraction and water reclamation, which supports a circular economy model in the mining industry. Experimental findings reviewed in this chapter reveal that combining bio-sorption and bio-precipitation with membrane or hybrid systems effectively removes 85%–99% of metals and sulfates, while also stabilizing pH and lowering environmental risks. Technologies such as forward osmosis and passive systems like wetlands and magnesite-based treatments offer promising, low-maintenance solutions for AMD, especially in remote areas. A bibliometric study was also carried out to evaluate influential publications, global research trends, and knowledge gaps in AMD treatment. The results showed that over the past 20 years, there has been a growing scientific interest in digital and eco-friendly solutions. This chapter contributes to the discourse on low-carbon, digitally enabled AMD treatment within the broader goals of sustainable and green mining.

Spectroscopic methods are essential for characterizing minerals because they provide important information about their physical, chemical, and structural characteristics. Recent advances in spectroscopy have significantly increased our ability to investigate complex mineral systems more precisely and effectively. This chapter offers a thorough analysis of the most recent spectroscopic techniques used in mineral characterization, such as advanced electron microscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Raman and infrared spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and X-ray spectroscopy. Emerging technologies that allow for the real-time analysis of dynamic processes, like in situ spectroscopic techniques and synchrotron-based spectroscopy, are highlighted. The importance of these methods in understanding phase transitions, mineral reactivity, and the identification of defects and trace elements is highlighted. The chapter also examines how spectroscopic data and computer techniques can be used to decipher complex mineralogical processes. This chapter presents recent findings and their practical applications, highlighting the transformative potential of advanced spectroscopic techniques in promoting innovation in mineral characterization and related disciplines.