In this study, the polyphenol content [total polyphenol content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and total anthocyanin content (TAC)] and antioxidant activity [1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), phosphomolybdenum complex assay (PMA), and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC)] of hydrangea leaf extract, collected based on the cultivation method of each variety, were confirmed, and the correlation between them was evaluated. To confirm the polyphenol content, TPC, TFC, and TAC contents were measured. The TPC was highest in Morning Star (open field) at 4.65 ± 0.00 mg tannic acid equivalent/g, while the TFC was highest in Hydrangea serrata (open field) at 6.44 ± 0.00 mg catechin equivalent/g. The anthocyanin content was highest in H. serrata (open field) at 1.56 ± 0.00 mg CGE/100 g DW. The antioxidant activity (PMA and FRAP) using the reducing power of transition metal ions was 6.17 ± 0.00 mg ascorbic acid equivalent/g in H. serrata (greenhouse) and 140.76 ± 0.00 mM Trolox equivalent (TE)/g in H. serrata (open field). The antioxidant activities measured by radical scavenging assays were highest in White ari (open field) for ABTS at 9.97 ± 0.00 mM TE/g, H. serrata (open field) for DPPH at 28.48 ± 0.00 mM TE/g, and H. serrata (open field) for ORAC at 81.09 ± 0.31 mM TE/g. Our study established a significant quadruple correlation between TPC and radical scavenging activity (ABTS, DPPH, and ORAC) and between transition metal ion (FRAP) and radical scavenging activity (ABTS, DPPH, and ORAC).

In this study, we evaluated the physiological effects of fermented metabolites derived from puffed grains (z), fermented using Bacillus amyloliquefaciens NPKE6, a strain isolated from Korean water kimchi. In vitro assays showed that NPKE6-FM significantly increased antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT, GPx) and digestive enzyme activities (α-amylase, protease), suggesting its strong biofunctional potential. To confirm its in vivo efficacy, we established two inflammatory disease models—ulcerative colitis and liver injury—in male C57BL/6 mice. Colitis was induced by oral administration of 1% dextran sodium sulfate (DSS, 1 mL), while liver injury was induced by intraperitoneal injection of acetaminophen (APAP, 300 mg/kg) three times per week for 4 weeks. In disease-induced control groups, elevated serum biomarkers (AST, ALT, ALP) and reduced antioxidant activity were observed. Experimental groups received 10 or 50 mg/kg/day of NPKE6-FM for 4 weeks. Treatment significantly restored antioxidant enzyme levels and reduced inflammatory markers such as TNF-α and IL-6. In the colitis model, NPKE6-FM alleviated DSS-induced tissue damage, evidenced by improved colon length, weight, and histological scores. Gene expression analysis showed downregulation of iNOS and COX-2 in colon tissues and Akt and MCP-1 in liver, indicating molecular anti-inflammatory effects. Although liver histopathology did not show marked improvement, biochemical and gene expression results supported its protective role. In summary, NPKE6-FM demonstrated potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in vitro and in vivo, indicating its potential as a functional food additive to prevent or alleviate inflammatory conditions such as colitis and liver injury.

In this study, the UV spectra maximum absorption wavelengths and molecular weights of major compounds 1–3 were identified in Perilla frutescens var. acuta extract using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-DAD and HPLC-MS/MS. Luteolin-7-O-diglucuronide (1), scutellarin (2), and rosmarinic acid (3) were identified, and simultaneous analysis validation was performed for quantification using HPLC-DAD. All linearities showed R2 values of 0.9993 or higher, and the limits of detection and quantification were measured in the ranges of 4.4802–5.4133 and 13.5764–16.4038 µg/mL, respectively. The relative standard deviation (RSD) values for accuracy ranged from 0.09 to 0.89%, and the recovery rates were in the range of 99.36–101.96%. The precision RSD values within the laboratory were in the range of 0.05–1.04%, and the RSD values for repeatability evaluation were below the guideline criteria of 2%. The content change of the three marker compounds within 24 h was 0.36–0.69%, confirming the chemical stability of the extract within 24 h, which was below the guideline criteria of 2.0% established by the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety guidelines. The content analysis of the extract according to ethanol concentration showed that luteolin-7-O-diglucuronide had the highest content of 302.22 µg/mL in the 0% ethanol extract, while scutellarin and rosmarinic acid showed the highest contents of 103.61 and 118.77 µg/mL, respectively, in the 60% ethanol extract.