In a world where climate change, vector expansion, human activity, and pathogen dispersal do not respect boundaries, the human–animal–pathogen interface has become less defined. Consequently, a One Health approach to disease surveillance and control has generated much interest across several disciplines. This systematic review evaluates current global research on the use of domestic dogs as sentinels for human infectious disease, and critically appraises how this may be applied within Canada. Results highlighted a bias in research from high- and middle-income-economy countries, with 35% of the studies describing data from the Latin America/Caribbean region, 25% from North America, and 11% from the European/Central Asia region. Bacteria were the most studied type of infectious agent, followed by protozoa, viruses, helminths, and fungi. Only six out of 142 studies described disease in Canada: four researched a variety of pathogens within Indigenous communities, one researched Borrelia burgdorferi in British Columbia, and one researched arboviruses in Quebec. Results from this review suggest that dogs could provide excellent sentinels for certain infectious-disease pathogens in Canada, yet are currently overlooked. Further research into the use of dog-sentinel surveillance is specifically recommended for California serogroup viruses, Chikungunya virus, West Nile virus, Lyme borreliosis, Rickettsia spp., Ehrlichia spp., and Dirofilaria immitis.

Lyme disease (LD) risk is emerging rapidly in Canada due to range expansion of its tick vectors, accelerated by climate change. The risk of contracting LD varies geographically due to variability in ecological characteristics that determine the hazard (the densities of infected host-seeking ticks) and vulnerability of the human population determined by their knowledge and adoption of preventive behaviors. Risk maps are commonly used to support public health decision-making on Lyme disease, but the ability of the human public to adopt preventive be-haviors is rarely taken into account in their development, which represents a critical gap. The objective of this work was to improve LD risk mapping using an integrated social-behavioral and ecological approach to: (i) compute enhanced integrated risk maps for prioritization of interventions and (ii) develop a spatially-explicit assessment tool to examine the relative contribution of different risk factors.The study was carried out in the Estrie region located in southern Que acute accent bec. The blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis, infected with the agent of LD is widespread in Estrie and as a result, regional LD incidence is the highest in the province. LD knowledge and behaviors in the population were measured in a cross-sectional health survey conducted in 2018 reaching 10,790 respondents in Estrie. These data were used to create an index for the social-behavioral component of risk in 2018. Local Empirical Bayes estimator technique were used to better quantify the spatial variance in the levels of adoption of LD preventive activities. For the ecological risk analysis, a tick abundance model was developed by integrating data from ongoing long-term tick surveillance programs from 2007 up to 2018. Social-behavioral and ecological components of the risk measures were combined to create vulnerability index maps and, with the addition of human population densities, prioritization index maps. Map predictions were validated by testing the association of high-risk areas with the current spatial distribution of human cases of LD and reported tick exposure. Our results demonstrated that social-behavioral and ecological components of LD risk have markedly different distributions within Estrie. The occurrence of human LD cases or reported tick exposure in a municipality was positively associated with tick density and the prioritization risk index (p < 0.001).This research is a second step towards a more comprehensive integrated LD risk assessment approach, examining social-behavioral risk factors that interact with ecological risk factors to influence the management of emerging tick-borne diseases, an approach that could be applied more widely to vector-borne and zoonotic diseases.

Lyme disease (LD) is Canada’s most common tick-borne disease (TBD), with other tick-borne pathogens being detected with increasing frequency. Tick bite prevention remains the most effective preventive measure against TBDs, yet individual preventive behaviours are not always adopted by at-risk individuals. This is concerning, given that the incidence of TBDs is predicted to increase with climate change. The objectives were: (1) to understand the facilitators and barriers to adopting tick bite preventive behaviours for at-risk individuals, and (2) to explore whether adverse behaviours are developing among individuals living in LD endemic regions. Residents of LD endemic regions were invited through social media platforms (including governmental and health authority) to participate in virtual focus groups. In total, 96 individuals participated in 22 focus groups across five provinces of Canada (BC, MB, ON, QC and NS) between October 2021 and January 2022. Thematic analysis was performed using an inductive-deductive iterative approach, and themes were organized using the COM-B model of behaviour. Participants identified several facilitators to adopting preventive behaviours, including habit formation and community awareness and influence. Reported barriers included inadequate, untimely, or changing knowledge, concerns about consequences, and lack of access to healthcare. A spectrum of adaptation across Canada was observed, ranging from low (BC) to high (MB and NS). For many individuals, living in a LD endemic region negatively impacted mental health, outdoor recreation, interaction with nature and/or views on pet ownership. Adaptations to TBDs are not always easy, consistent, or positive. This study is the first to describe the barriers to adopting preventive behaviours and impacts of living with ticks across multiple Canadian provinces. The themes and impacts identified in this study should provide insight for a variety of initiatives to be developed, implemented, and evaluated to improve quality of life and health outcomes related to TBDs in Canada.

Background: Lyme disease (LD) and other tick-borne diseases are emerging across Canada. Spatial and temporal LD risk is typically estimated using acarological surveillance and reported human cases, the former not considering human behavior leading to tick exposure and the latter occurring after infection.Objectives: The primary objective was to explore, at the census subdivision level (CSD), the associations of selfreported tick exposure, alternative risk indicators (predicted tick density, eTick submissions, public health risk level), and ecological variables (Ixodes scapularis habitat suitability index and cumulative degree days > 0 C) with incidence proportion of LD. A secondary objective was to explore which of these predictor variables were associated with self-reported tick exposure at the CSD level.Methods: Self-reported tick exposure was measured in a cross-sectional populational health survey conducted in 2018, among 10,790 respondents living in 116 CSDs of the Estrie region, Quebec, Canada. The number of reported LD cases per CSD in 2018 was obtained from the public health department. Generalized linear mixedeffets models accounting for spatial autocorrelation were built to fulfill the objectives.Results: Self-reported tick exposure ranged from 0.0 % to 61.5 % (median 8.9 %) and reported LD incidence rates ranged from 0 to 324 cases per 100,000 person-years, per CSD. A positive association was found between selfreported tick exposure and LD incidence proportion (ss = 0.08, CI = 0.04,0.11, p < 0.0001). The best-fit model included public health risk level (AIC: 144.2), followed by predicted tick density, ecological variables, self-reported tick exposure and eTick submissions (AIC: 158.4, 158.4, 160.4 and 170.1 respectively). Predicted tick density was the only significant predictor of self-reported tick exposure (ss = 0.83, CI = 0.16,1.50, p = 0.02).Discussion: This proof-of-concept study explores self-reported tick exposure as a potential indicator of LD risk using populational survey data. This approach may offer a low-cost and simple tool for evaluating LD risk and deserves further evaluation.