The water–energy–food (WEF) nexus is an integrated conceptual tool for achieving sustainable development especially for countries facing limitations in one or more of its three pillars. The approach relies on bringing different stakeholders from the water, food and energy sectors together to collaboratively plan and adopt a holistic approach to resources management. This enables them to address sector-specific issues and develop a comprehensive understanding of the connected sectors leading to better outcomes. However, WEF nexus implementation is currently in its infancy in many countries and stakeholders are in the process of learning how to effectively communicate and collaborate with each other. In this paper, we report the state of the WEF nexus in Jordan, a dry country grappling with water, energy and food production challenges in a changing climate. Stakeholders from line ministries, academics, private sector players and non-state actors were brought together to discuss the status of the WEF nexus and identify challenges that need to be overcome for full realization of the WEF nexus as an operational framework for integrated development at country level. Stakeholders identified 7 cardinal lessons in the process of WEF nexus implementation in Jordan. These are that (i) data/information sharing is vital (ii) WEF nexus requires funding, (iii) collaborations among actors is key, (iv) inclusivity in planning is necessary, (v) clear responsibilities and boundaries among stakeholders are needed, (vi) sustainability and cohesion are a must and (vii) building trust among and within organizations is a primary ingredient for success. A deeper understanding of the interrelated dynamics of these challenges is required to foster the WEF nexus in Jordan as the issues are grave but not insurmountable. It is therefore suggested that deliberate efforts are needed from a technical and policy angle to ensure full operationalization of the WEF nexus approach in Jordan and elsewhere.

The demand to apply a decision support system to simulate salinity and drought is increasing with time, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions like Jordan, where the threat of land degradation by salinization is of high concern. The main objective of this research was to evaluate the response of the AquaCrop model to soil salinity in Jordan Valley. Two experiments were conducted, one at the field and the other at the greenhouse. Three water salinity levels (S): S1 (control = 2 dS m−1), S2 (4 dS m−1), and S3 (8 dS m−1) with three irrigation amounts (R): R1 (control = 120%), R2 (100%), and R3 (70%) were used in the field. Four levels of saline water (S):S1 (control =0.65), (4) S2, (8) S3, and (10) dS m-1) S4 were used in the greenhouse. In both experiments, grain yield, and aboveground biomass were measured after harvesting. Soil salinity and pH were measured every three weeks during the growing season to monitor soil salinization. Results showed that the final field grain yield was good in calibration and validation, with a 0.96 agreement index (d). The efficiency factor (E) was 0.86 and 0.87 for calibration and validation, respectively, while the normalized root mean square error (NRMSE) was less than 4 %. Field biomass d-index of 0.87 and 0.71 and E of 0.65 and 0.45 for Calibration and Validation were found, respectively. In the greenhouse experiment, the results were less satisfactory. Grain yield showed d-index of 0.84 and 0.88 in calibration and validation, respectively, while biomass showed poor results. All statistical criteria used in this research indicated that the model can simulate grain yield and biomass properly in the field, however, biomass statistical results were less accurate. Overall it is recommended, to use AquaCrop for soil salinity management in Jordan Valley.

The Jordanian portion of the Jordan Valley serves as a critical geostrategic and agricultural corridor, yet it faces an existential threat from absolute water scarcity, climate change, and regional demographic pressures. This study provides an exhaustive qualitative analysis of water governance in the valley, drawing on national strategies, institutional archives, and longitudinal data from 2000 to 2025. The research evaluates the transition of the Jordan Valley Authority (JVA) from a centralized development agency toward a mature, tri-tier decentralization framework involving Water User Associations (WUAs). Despite these reforms, systemic challenges such as elite capture, non-revenue water (NRW) losses in the King Abdullah Canal (KAC), and the subsidies continue to hinder efficiency. The study applies the Water–Energy–Food–Ecosystem (WEFE) nexus framework to examine the interdependencies between energy-intensive pumping, the reuse of Treated Wastewater (TWW) for 98% in certain sectors, and the preservation of the Dead Sea ecosystem. Findings indicate that while land-use policies have preserved 371,000 dunums of agricultural land, approximately 71,000 dunums remain uncultivated due to water shortages. The manuscript identifies the Amman-Aqaba Water Conveyance Project (AAWA) and the 2030 Digital IT Roadmap as essential catalysts for long-term resilience. The paper concludes with adaptive governance recommendations aimed at reconciling national strategic priorities with localized operational efficiency.

The Jordan Valley, a critical agro-ecosystem in Jordan, faces escalating challenges from chronic water scarcity compounded by environmental and socio-economic pressures, necessitating a systems perspective to understand cross-sector interactions beyond isolated sectoral issues. This study interprets socio-ecological interactions influencing sustainability outcomes in the region and identifies key feedback loops and adaptive responses under water scarcity through an integrated Socio-Ecological Systems (SES) and Water–Energy–Food–Ecosystems (WEFE) framework. Employing a qualitative document analysis (QDA) design, a purposive collection of peer-reviewed studies and institutional publications (n = 50) published between 2002 and 2025 was assembled and systematically coded using a structured deductive–inductive strategy grounded in SES components and WEFE domain interactions. Results reveal seven interconnected themes: water scarcity as a structural constraint, agricultural intensification and resource pressures, climate change as a stress multiplier, ecosystem degradation and service loss, pollution and environmental quality challenges, socio-economic vulnerability and livelihood constraints, and fragmented governance with coordination gaps. These themes highlight reinforcing loops where scarcity promotes groundwater reliance and non-conventional water use, intensification heightens salinity and contamination risks, climate variability escalates irrigation demands, and ecological degradation diminishes buffering capacity, while socio-economic limitations hinder adaptation and governance fragmentation impairs integrated planning and enforcement. While prior studies have examined water scarcity, agricultural intensification, or climate impacts in isolation, this study advances the literature by synthesizing these dynamics through an integrated SES–WEFE analytical lens, revealing reinforcing system feedbacks and governance constraints that are not visible within single-sector or descriptive syntheses.

The Jordan Valley is a heavily modified, data-limited transboundary river basin where water availability is constrained by both climate conditions and intensive human intervention. This study applies an integrated hydrological and hydrogeochemical modeling framework using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to quantify basin-scale water availability and quality and to assess climate change impacts for the period 2000–2021. Results indicate that the basin is strongly evapotranspiration-dominated, with mean annual precipitation of 298.9 mm and precipitation-derived evapotranspiration accounting for 66.3% of rainfall. When externally supplied irrigation water is included, total evapotranspiration increases markedly, highlighting the strong dependence of agriculture on imported surface water and groundwater abstractions. Only a small fraction of total water input contributes to river discharge toward the Dead Sea, indicating a very limited internal water surplus. Hydrological dynamics are largely controlled by upstream dams and transboundary diversions, while nitrate and sediment simulations demonstrate a close coupling between hydrology, land use, and water quality. Climate projections suggest further reductions in water availability during the 21st century, exacerbating existing water scarcity. Overall, the study illustrates how intensive regulation and irrigation dependency constrain water availability in the Jordan Valley and in similar heavily modified transboundary river basins.

Jordan is among the most water-stressed countries globally, with renewable freshwater availability falling below 100 m³ per capita per year. The Jordan Valley (JV), the country’s primary irrigated agricultural corridor, faces interconnected pressures across water, energy, food, and ecosystem (WEFE) systems under intensifying climatic and demographic stressors. This study evaluates the integrated performance of the WEFE nexus in the Jordan Valley using updated evidence (2018–2023) to quantify cross-sector interactions, performance gaps, and intervention priorities. A mixed-methods empirical assessment integrated quantitative sectoral data on water supply–demand and quality, electricity supply–demand and renewable deployment, agricultural productivity, and ecosystem pressure indicators, complemented by Living Lab–based stakeholder interviews. Sectoral indices were calculated based on supply–demand adequacy and aggregated into an overall WEFE Nexus Index. Results indicate persistent water scarcity, with a domestic supply of 23.48 MCM yr⁻¹ versus demand of 26.00 MCM yr⁻¹ (deficit −2.52 MCM yr⁻¹) and irrigation supply of 206 MCM yr⁻¹ relative to approximately 400 MCM yr⁻¹ demand (deficit −194 MCM yr⁻¹). Water services account for 14% of national electricity consumption, while solar pumping provides approximately 40% of daytime irrigation energy. Agricultural productivity is constrained by salinity and water quality, resulting in yield gaps (e.g., greenhouse vegetables: 4.7 vs. 10.0 t/dunum). Sectoral performance is uneven (Water 0.71; Energy 1.00; Food 0.45; Ecosystem 0.50), yielding an overall WEFE Nexus Index of 0.63 (0.50 after efficiency adjustment). Climate projections indicate continued warming (+1.8 °C) and declining precipitation (−11%) by 2060. Water harvesting, integrated renewable-powered water services, wastewater reuse, salinity management, climate-smart agriculture, and ecosystem restoration are critical to enhancing climate-resilient resource security in the Jordan Valley. The WEFE index developed here offers a tool for integrated planning and underscores that achieving climate-resilient resource security in the Jordan Valley will require strategic, cross-sector interventions and adaptive governance rather than sector-specific fixes.