The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of the non-destructive hyperspectral imaging system (HSI) and accuracy of the model developed using Support Vector Machine (SVM) for determining trace detection of explosives. Raman spectroscopy has been used in similar studies, but no study has been published which is based on measurement of reflectance from hyperspectral sensor for trace detection of explosives. HSI used in this study has an advantage over existing techniques due to its combination of imaging system and spectroscopy, along with being contactless and non-destructive in nature. Hyperspectral images of the chemical were collected using the BaySpec hyperspectral sensor which operated in the spectral range of 400–1000 nm (144 bands). Image processing was applied on the acquired hyperspectral image to select the region of interest (ROI) and to extract the spectral reflectance of the chemicals which were stored as spectral library. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and first derivative was applied to reduce the high dimensionality of the image and to determine the optimal wavelengths between 400 and 1000 nm. In total, 22 out of 144 wavelengths were selected by analysing the loadings of principal components (PC). SVM was used to develop the classification model. SVM model established on the whole spectrum from 400 to 1000 nm achieved an accuracy of 81.11%, whereas an accuracy of 77.17% with less computational load was achieved when SVM model was established on the optimal wavelengths selected. The results of the study demonstrate that the hyperspectral imaging system along with SVM is a promising tool for trace detection of explosives.

Controlled drainage and subirrigation (CDSI) is an important water management strategy in many regions, but the conditions under which CDSI is most likely to increase crop yield and soil moisture are not fully understood. A meta‐analysis, consisting of 154 pairwise observations from replicated and randomized trials in 30 peer‐reviewed primary research articles on CDSI (6 controlled drainage, 24 CDSI, analyzed together due to data scarcity), was conducted to study the responses of yield and soil moisture to CDSI, and investigate how crop type, soil texture, and cumulative growing season precipitation (P _GS ) influence these responses. Based on the yield response to these moderating factors, we used a fuzzy‐logic approach to map potentially suitable locations for CDSI in the conterminous United States. On average, CDSI increased yield by 8.0% (95% CI = 1.8–14.7%) compared with conventional free drainage. The yield response to CDSI did not differ among crops. However, a greater yield response to CDSI was observed in medium‐textured soils (19.4% increase; 95% CI = 12.4–27.0%) than in coarse‐ or fine‐textured soils. The positive effect of CDSI on yield increased with decreasing P _GS in coarse‐ and medium‐textured soils. There was no clear effect of CDSI on soil moisture, nor did any moderators influence this relationship, though this may be attributed to the scarcity of studies on CDSI reporting soil moisture. The fuzzy‐logic‐based approach revealed that while potentially suitable areas are mostly concentrated in the well‐studied U.S. Midwest, these areas also exist in other regions where CDSI may warrant further study.

Urbanization and expansion in each city of emerging countries have become an essential function of Earth’s surface, with the majority of people migrating from rural to urban regions. The various urban category characteristics have emphasized the great importance of understanding and creating suitable land evaluations in the future. The overall objective of this study is to classify the urban zone utilizing building height which is estimated using Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and various satellite-based indexes of Sentinel-2A. The first objective of this research is to estimate the building height of the Sentinel-1 SAR in Nonthaburi, Thailand. A new indicator, vertical-vertical-horizontal polarization (VVH), which can provide a better performance, is produced from the dual-polarization information, vertical-vertical (VV), and vertical-horizontal (VH). Then, the building height model was developed using indicator VVH and the reference building height data. The root means square error (RMSE) between the estimated and reference height is 1.413 m. Then, the second objective is to classify three classes of urban types, which are composed of residential buildings, commercial buildings, and other buildings, including vegetation, waterbodies, car parks, and so on. Spectral indices such as normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), normalized difference water index (NDWI), and normalized difference built up the index (NDBI) are extracted from the Sentinel-2A data. To classify the urban types, a three-machine learning classifier, support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF), and k-nearest neighbor (KNN) were developed. The classification uses randomly trained data from each 500 m focus study which are divided into a 100 × 100 m grid. Different models are examined using different variables, for example, classification using only building height and only spectral indices. The indices and estimated building height were used to classify the urban types. Not only the average of various satellite-based indices and building height of 100 × 100 m grid was used, but also the minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation were calculated from NDVI, NDWI, NDBI, and building height. There are a total of 16 variables used in the model. Eventually, the principal components analysis (PCA) was used to reduce the variables and get better performance of the models. SVM showed better accuracy than the other two, RF and KNN. The accuracies of SVM, RF, and KNN are 0.86, 0.75, and 0.76, respectively.

The increasing threat of explosives is a serious issue affecting socio-economy of many countries at multiple levels, such as public security, unused arable land, closing of trade routes, isolation of villages, and these act as a hindrance in the development of the country. Activities using explosives have increased in the last two decades making it a global threat that is challenging humanity. In this study, different chemicals such as Ammonium Nitrate (AN), Trinitrotoluene (TNT) and C4 along with soil as the background material were used for trace detection. The aim of this study was to determine an altitude for the sensor and to identify the minimum mapping size of the chemical at which the model can achieve 70% accuracy. To determine the altitude and minimum size of the chemical that can be detected in the acceptable range of accuracy, several experiments were performed in real ground conditions. This study focuses on the applicability of the proposed method in the real world. In the first set of experiments, the altitude of the sensor was varied from 40 cm to 150 cm and the accuracy of the model was determined. From the analysis, it was found that the model achieved more than 75% accuracy at an altitude of 90 cm with an image overlap of 70%. In the second set of experiments, the minimum size of chemical sample was varied from 0.25 cm to 1 cm. The accuracy of the model was more than 70% when the minimum sample size was 0.5 cm or greater. For various altitude determined, the speed of the vehicle was calculated. Therefore, to implement hyperspectral imaging system on the unarmed vehicle for real application, the suggested altitude and speed of the sensor should be around 90 cm and 10.5 cm/s at which detection limit would be equal or more than 0.5 cm with accuracy greater than 70%.