Very low-birth-weight (VLBW; <1500 g) birth has become an increasingly common occurrence because of medical advances in neonatal intensive care and management of high-risk pregnancy. Approximately 50,000 VLBW births occur annually in the United States.¹ Significant improvements have occurred in survival rates of small preterm infants, especially those of extremely low birth weight (ie, <1000 g). However, follow-up studies of survivors have documented higher rates of neurodevelopmental impairment, including motor, visual, and hearing disabilities; mental retardation; attention disorders; and learning disabilities at school age in comparison with term infants.^2-6 Increased rates of disability among survivors have engendered debate about the ethics and justification of intensive care for the most immature infants.⁷ Although the birth of an infant with VLBW poses a considerable challenge to parents, there is little information detailing how they adapt to this experience and subsequent caregiving demands.

Objective. To examine the effects of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) and very low birth weight (VLBW) on the cognitive and academic achievement of a large sample of 8-year-old children. Methods. Infants who were VLBW and had BPD (n = 98) or did not have BPD (n = 75) and term infants (n = 99) were followed prospectively to age 8. Groups were compared on measures assessing 4 broad areas of functioning: intelligence, achievement, gross motor, and attentional skills. Measures included the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III, the Woodcock Johnson Test of Achievement-Revised, the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, the Tactual Performance Test (spatial memory), and the Continuous Performance Test (attention). School outcomes were assessed by parent and teacher report, as well as from school records. Groups were comparable on socioeconomic status, sex, and race. The total sample of BPD, VLBW, and term children was compared on all outcome measures. In addition, neurologic risk was assessed in the present sample and included the following: intraventricular hemorrhage, echodense lesions, porencephaly, hydrocephalus, ventriculoperitoneal shunt, meningitis, and periventricular leukomalacia. Individual difference analyses were conducted for neurologically intact children in all 3 groups. Finally, treatment effects were examined by comparing BPD children who had received steroids as part of their treatment with BPD children who had not. Results. The BPD group demonstrated deficits compared with VLBW and term children in intelligence; reading, mathematics, and gross motor skills; and special education services. VLBW children differed from term children in all of the above areas, except reading recognition, comprehension, and occupational therapy. Attentional differences were obtained between BPD and term children only. The BPD group (54%) was more likely to be enrolled in special education classes than VLBW (37%) or term children (25%). In addition, more BPD children (20%) achieved full-scale IQ scores <70, in the mental retardation range, compared with either VLBW (11%) or term (3%) children, with all VLBW children significantly more likely than term children to achieve IQs in the subaverage category. After controlling for birth weight and neurologic problems, BPD and/or duration on oxygen predicted lower performance IQ, perceptual organization, full-scale IQ, motor and attentional skills, and special education placement. The qualitative classification of BPD (present or absent) was a significant predictor for lower scores on measures of applied problems; motor skills; and incidence of speech-language, occupational, and physical therapies. Individual difference analyses were performed to ascertain whether differences between the risk groups were primarily attributable to neurologic complications. Even with the neurologically intact sample of BPD and VLBW children, differences between the term comparison group and both the BPD and VLBW groups were found for many outcome measures. When birth weight and neurologic complications were controlled, BPD and severity of BPD were associated with lower performance and full-scale IQ, poorer perceptual organization, attention, and motor skills, as well as lower school achievement and greater participation in special education, including occupational, physical, and speech-language therapies. Treatment protocol may in part be responsible for differences observed in our BPD sample. Steroid and nonsteroid groups of BPD children differed significantly in performance IQ (72.8 vs 84.8) and full-scale IQ (77.0 vs 85.2); perceptual organization (74.0 vs 85.2); Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency score (36.6 vs 44.7); and participation in special education (78% vs 48%), occupational therapy (71% vs 44%), and physical therapy (71% vs 41%). In every instance, BPD children who received steroids fared more poorly than BPD children who did not receive steroids. Conclusions. BPD and duration on oxygen have long-term adverse effects on cognitive and academic achievement above and beyond the effects of VLBW. The problems that have been identified at 8 years of age highlight the need for continued monitoring of the learning, behavior, and development of BPD children to intervene with children who are at risk for school problems.

Objectives. A randomized, masked, controlled trial was conducted to assess effects of supplementing premature infant formulas with oils containing the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, arachidonic acid (AA; 20:4n6), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n3) on growth, visual acuity, and multiple indices of development. Methods. Infants (N = 470) with birth weights 750 to 1800 g were assigned within 72 hours of the first enteral feeding to 1 of 3 formula groups with or without long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: 1) control (N = 144), 2) AA+DHA from fish/fungal oil (N = 140), and 3) AA+DHA from egg-derived triglyceride (egg-TG)/fish oil (N = 143). Infants were fed human milk and/or Similac Special Care with or without 0.42% AA and 0.26% DHA to term corrected age (CA), then fed human milk or NeoSure with or without 0.42% AA and 0.16% DHA to 12 months9 CA. Infants fed exclusively human milk to term CA (EHM-T; N = 43) served as a reference. Results. Visual acuity measured by acuity cards at 2, 4, and 6 months9 CA was not different among groups. Visual acuity measured by swept-parameter visual-evoked potentials in a subgroup from 3 sites (45 control, 50 AA+DHA [fish/fungal]; 39 AA+DHA [egg-TG/fish]; and 23 EHM-T) was better in both the AA+DHA (fish/fungal; least square [LS] means [cycle/degree] ± standard error [SE; octaves] 11.4 ± 0.1) and AA+DHA (egg-TG/fish; 12.5 ± 0.1) than control (8.4 ± 0.1) and closer to that of the EHM-T group (16.0 ± 0.2) at 6 months9 CA. Visual acuity improved from 4 to 6 months9 CA in all but the control group. Scores on the Fagan test of novelty preference were greater in AA+DHA (egg-TG/fish; LS means ± SE, 59.4 ± 7.7) than AA+DHA (fish/fungal; 57.0 ± 7.5) and control (57.5 ± 7.4) at 6 months9 CA, but not at 9 months9 CA. There were no differences in the Bayley Mental Development Index at 12 months9 CA. However, the Bayley motor development index was higher for AA+DHA (fish/fungal; LS means ± SE, 90.6 ± 4.4) than control (81.8 ± 4.3) for infants ≤1250 g. When Spanish-speaking infants and twins were excluded from the analyses, the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory revealed that control infants (LS means ± SE, 94.1 ± 2.9) had lower vocabulary comprehension at 14 months9 CA than AA+DHA (fish/fungal) infants (100.6 ± 2.9) or AA+DHA (egg-TG/fish) infants (102.2 ± 2.8). There were no consistent differences in weight, length, head circumference, or anthropometric gains. Conclusion. These results showed a benefit of supplementing formulas for premature infants with AA and DHA from either a fish/fungal or an egg-TG/fish source from the time of first enteral feeding to 12 months9 CA.

Objective. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is now the leading cause of lung disease in US infants. In a large regional cohort, we tested the hypothesis that despite innovations in neonatal care, very low birth weight (VLBW) infants (<1500 g) with BPD had poorer developmental outcomes than nonaffected infants during the first 3 years of life, and that BPD predicted poorer outcome beyond the effects of other risk factors. Methods. Three groups of infants (122 with BPD, 84 VLBW without BPD, and 123 full-term) were followed longitudinally to 3 years of age with the Bayley Scales of Mental and Motor Development. Comparison groups of VLBW infants without BPD and full-term infants did not differ in sex, race, or socioeconomic status. Statistical analyses included hierarchical and stepwise multiple regression. Results. Infants with BPD performed more poorly at all ages. By 3 years, cognitive and/or motor development was in the range of retardation (<70 standard score) for 21% to 22% of infants with BPD. In multiple regression analyses controlling for socioeconomic and neonatal risk conditions, BPD had an independent negative effect on motor outcome at 3 years. Neurologic risk, a summary measure of neurologic problems other than intraventricular hemorrhage, and the presence of BPD independently predicted motor delay. By 3 years, social class, race, and neurologic risk predicted mental outcome, suggesting that the specific effects of BPD are primarily on the motor domain. Conclusions. In VLBW infants, BPD predicts poorer motor outcome at 3 years, after control for other risks. Cohorts of infants with BPD also had higher rates of mental retardation, associated with greater neurologic and social risk. These findings underscore the need for intensive prevention and habilitation efforts for this growing group of VLBW survivors, as well as investigation into the potential role of BPD in the higher rates of learning disabilities in VLBW cohorts at school age.

Maternal use of cocaine during pregnancy remains a significant and enduring public health problem, particularly in urban areas of the United States and among women of low socioeconomic status.¹ An estimated 1 million children have been born after fetal cocaine exposure since the mid-1980s, when the so-called crack epidemic emerged with the availability of a cheap, potent, smokable form of cocaine.² Cocaine has effects on monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems important for the development of neuronal circuitry and human learning.^3-5 A growing body of research documents relationships between prenatal cocaine exposure and prematurity,^6,7 low birth weight,⁸ microcephaly,^9,10 and newborn behavioral abnormalities,^11,12 which has raised concerns regarding long-term cognitive and developmental outcomes.