Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease affecting over 200 million people currently treated with one drug, praziquantel. A possible drug target is the seleno-protein thioredoxin-glutathione reductase (TGR), a key enzyme in the pathway of the parasite for detoxification of reactive oxygen species. The enzyme is a unique fusion of a glutaredoxin domain with a thioredoxin reductase domain, which contains a selenocysteine (Sec) as the penultimate amino acid. Auranofin (AF), a gold-containing compound already in clinical use as an anti-arthritic drug, has been shown to inhibit TGR and to substantially reduce worm burden in mice. Using x-ray crystallography we solved (at 2.5 Å resolution) the structure of wild type TGR incubated with AF. The electron density maps show that the actual inhibitor is gold, released from AF. Gold is bound at three different sites not directly involving the C-terminal Sec residue; however, because the C terminus in the electron density maps is disordered, we cannot exclude the possibility that gold may also bind to Sec. To investigate the possible role of Sec in the inactivation kinetics, we tested the effect of AF on a model enzyme of the same superfamily, i.e. the naturally Sec-lacking glutathione reductase, and on truncated TGR. We demonstrate that the role of selenium in the onset of inhibition by AF is catalytic and can be mimicked by an external source of selenium (benzeneselenol). Therefore, we propose that Sec mediates the transfer of gold from its ligands in AF to the redox-active Cys couples of TGR.

Although conformational changes are essential for the function of proteins, little is known about their structural dynamics at atomic level resolution. Myoglobin (Mb) is the paradigm to investigate conformational dynamics because it is a simple globular heme protein displaying a photosensitivity of the iron–ligand bond. Upon laser photodissociation of carboxymyoglobin Mb a nonequilibrium population of protein structures is generated that relaxes over a broad time range extending from picoseconds to milliseconds. This process is associated with migration of the ligand to cavities in the matrix and with a reduction in the geminate rebinding rate by several orders of magnitude. Here we report nanosecond time-resolved Laue diffraction data to 1.55-Å resolution on a Mb mutant, which depicts the sequence of structural events associated with this extended relaxation. Motions of the distal E-helix, including the mutated residue Gln-64(E7), and of the CD-turn are found to lag significantly (100–300 ns) behind local rearrangements around the heme such as heme tilting, iron motion out of the heme plane, and swinging of the mutated residue Tyr-29(B10), all of which occur promptly (≤3 ns). Over the same delayed time range, CO is observed to migrate from a cavity distal to the heme known to bind xenon (called Xe4) to another such cavity proximal to the heme (Xe1). We propose that the extended relaxation of the globin moiety reflects reequilibration among conformational substates known to play an essential role in controlling protein function.

ActVA‐Orf6 monooxygenase from Streptomyces coelicolor that catalyses the oxidation of an aromatic intermediate of the actinorhodin biosynthetic pathway is a member of a class of small monooxygenases that carry out oxygenation without the assistance of any of the prosthetic groups, metal ions or cofactors normally associated with activation of molecular oxygen. The overall structure is a ferredoxin‐like fold with a novel dimeric assembly, indicating that the widely represented ferredoxin fold may sustain yet another functionality. The resolution (1.3 Å) of the enzyme structure and its complex with substrate and product analogues allows us to visualize the mechanism of binding and activation of the substrate for attack by molecular oxygen, and utilization of two gates for the reaction components including a proton gate and an O2/H2O gate with a putative protein channel. This is the first crystal structure of an enzyme involved in the tailoring of a type II aromatic polyketide and illustrates some of the enzyme–substrate recognition features that may apply to a range of other enzymes involved in modifying a polyketide core structure.

Thioredoxin plays a crucial role in a wide number of physiological processes, which span from reduction of nucleotides to deoxyriboucleotides to the detoxification from xenobiotics, oxidants and radicals. The redox function of Thioredoxin is critically dependent on the enzyme Thioredoxin NADPH Reductase (TrxR). In view of its indirect involvement in the above mentioned physio/pathological processes, inhibition of TrxR is an important clinical goal. As a general rule, the affinities and mechanisms of binding of TrxR inhibitors to the target enzyme are known with scarce precision and conflicting results abound in the literature. A relevant analysis of published results as well as the experimental procedures is therefore needed, also in view of the critical interest of TrxR inhibitors. We review the inhibitors of TrxR and related flavoreductases and the classical treatment of reversible, competitive, non competitive and uncompetitive inhibition with respect to TrxR, and in some cases we are able to reconcile contradictory results generated by oversimplified data analysis.