The spotted bollworm Earias vittella (Lepidoptera: Nolidae) is a polyphagous pest with enormous economic significance, primarily affecting cotton and okra. However, the lack of gene sequence information on this pest has a significant constraint on molecular investigations and the formulation of superior pest management strategies. An RNA-seq-based transcriptome study was conducted to alleviate such limitations, and de novo assembly was performed to obtain transcript sequences of this pest. Reference gene identification across E. vittella developmental stages and RNAi treatments were conducted using its sequence information, which resulted in identifying transcription elongation factor (TEF), V-type proton ATPase (V-ATPase), and Glyceraldehyde -3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) as the most suitable reference genes for normalization in RT-qPCR-based gene expression studies. The present study also identified important developmental, RNAi pathway, and RNAi target genes and performed life-stage developmental expression analysis using RT-qPCR to select the optimal targets for RNAi. We found that naked dsRNA degradation in the E. vittella hemolymph is the primary reason for poor RNAi. A total of six genes including Juvenile hormone methyl transferase (JHAMT), Chitin synthase (CHS), Aminopeptidase (AMN), Cadherin (CAD), Alpha-amylase (AMY), and V-type proton ATPase (V-ATPase) were selected and knocked down significantly with three different nanoparticles encapsulated dsRNA conjugates, i.e., Chitosan-dsRNA, carbon quantum dots-dsRNA (CQD-dsRNA), and Lipofectamine-dsRNA conjugate. These results demonstrate that feeding nanoparticle-shielded dsRNA silences target genes and suggests that nanoparticle-based RNAi can efficiently manage this pest.

Climate change is intensifying winters in temperate regions, posing a serious threat to Apis mellifera health. The gut microbiome, a distinct community of core bacterial species, is central to overwintering success by supporting immune function, nutrient assimilation, and pathogen resistance, but is highly sensitive to environmental stressors such as cold temperatures and dietary shifts. Stress-induced perturbations can reshape the composition and relative abundance of the gut microbiome in honey bees, leading to adverse effects on host health, physiological functions, and overwinter survival. Cold temperatures and additional stressors further destabilize the microbiome, compounding these effects. This review is the first to synthesize current knowledge on how extrinsic factors, such as diet, antibiotics, and pathogens, and intrinsic factors, including age and strain, influence the composition and function of the honey bee gut microbiota during the overwintering period. Given the increasing severity of winter conditions under climate change, a deeper understanding of microbiome–host–environment interactions is essential for improving honey bee resilience. By integrating evidence on the microbiome’s roles in nutrient utilization, immune modulation, and pathogen defense, this review outlines a framework to guide future research aimed at sustaining pollinator health and nutrition in a changing global climate.

Climate change is making winters in temperate regions increasingly harsh and unpredictable, posing significant threats to honey bee (Apis mellifera) health. The gut microbiome, a distinct community of core bacterial species, is central to overwintering success by supporting immune function, nutrient assimilation, and pathogen resistance, but is highly sensitive to environmental stressors such as cold temperatures and dietary shifts. Stress-induced perturbations can reshape the composition and relative abundance of the gut microbiome in honey bees, leading to adverse effects on host health, physiological functions, and overwinter survival. Cold temperatures and additional stressors further destabilize the microbiome, compounding these effects. This review is the first to synthesize current knowledge on how extrinsic factors, such as diet, antibiotics, and pathogens, and intrinsic factors, including age and strain, influence the composition and function of the honey bee gut microbiota. Given the increasing severity of winter conditions under climate change, a deeper understanding of microbiome–host–environment interactions is essential for improving honey bee resilience. By integrating evidence on the microbiome’s roles in nutrient utilization, immune modulation, and pathogen defense, this review out-lines a framework to guide future research and management strategies aimed at mitigating overwintering losses and sustaining pollinator health in a changing global climate.