Inappropriate concentrations of elements in infant formulae may lead to adverse health effects, so this study was designed to determine the concentration of selected basic (Na, K, Ca, P, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mn) and toxic or potentially toxic elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Hg, Sn, and Ni) in formulae for infants from birth to 12 months currently available on the Polish market. The concentrations of these elements were assessed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and the estimated daily intake (EDI) of elements was calculated. The concentrations of most analyzed elements in formulae were in good agreement with the recommended EU limits, except for Cu (median 72 µg/100 kcal, range 0 − 338 µg/100 kcal) and K (155 µg/100 kcal, 103 − 316 µg/100 kcal) in some formulae did not meet the guidelines for minimum and maximum levels. Additionally, there were large differences in Mn concentrations between the various formulae (range 1 − 91 µg/100 kcal). The Ni EDI exceeded 4.3 µg in some formulae, which EFSA established as the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) for eczematous skin reactions. Therefore, regular monitoring of the composition of formulae for infants is recommended.

Background and Objectives: Recovering from COVID-19 does not always imply a full return to health and may lead to the development of post-COVID-19 syndrome. Post-COVID-19 manifestations include, among others, symptoms of depression and/or anxiety. The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence of anxiety and depressive disorders and to identify their exogenous and endogenous predictors in individuals with post-COVID-19 syndrome. Materials and Methods: The study included 200 participants (116 women and 84 men, aged 18–80) diagnosed with post-COVID-19 syndrome. Participants completed psychological assessments, including the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 (GAD-7), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Comorbidities were also evaluated. Results: Based on the HADS, anxiety was identified in 41.5% of respondents and depression in 39.5%. Generalized anxiety disorder was screened positive for 36.5% of respondents (GAD-7), while mild depression was observed in 37.0% (BDI). Among participants with post-COVID-19 syndrome and diabetes, the risk of developing depression was three times higher than in individuals without comorbidities. In smoking women with post-COVID-19 syndrome and diabetes, the risk of developing depressive disorders was estimated to exceed 90%. Conclusions: The risk of developing anxiety and depressive disorders in individuals with post-COVID-19 syndrome and multimorbidity is very high, highlighting the need for preventive psychological care, including targeted screening programs, for those at greatest risk.

Background: Recovering from COVID-19 does not always lead to complete recovery, and many patients report symptoms of anxiety and depression. One potential mechanism behind these disorders is dysbiosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of psychobiotic therapy on the effectiveness of treating anxiety and depressive symptoms in individuals who had previously experienced COVID-19. Methods: This study was designed as a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. A total of 62 participants were randomly allocated to one of two groups: a psychobiotic group (PG; 23 women, 9 men) receiving 3 × 10⁹ CFU Lactobacillus helveticus and Bifidobacterium longum, or a control group (CG; 21 women, 9 men) receiving a placebo, for 6 weeks. Fifty-six participants finalized the study and were included in the analysis (28 per group). The severity of depressive and anxiety symptoms at baseline and after the intervention was assessed using validated self-assessment tools: the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item scale (GAD-7), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (SCL-90). Additionally, the profile of selected short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the stool was assessed. Results: Following the supplementation period, the PG showed significantly lower median levels of depression and anxiety compared to the CG, corresponding to a 57.2% reduction in anxiety severity (GAD-7) and a 50.9% reduction in depressive symptoms (BDI) (HADS—Depression and Anxiety, and GAD-7: p = 0.0001; BDI: p = 0.0003). Additionally, the prevalence of anxiety and depressive symptoms significantly decreased in the PG compared to the CG based on the HADS-A (p = 0.0044), GAD-7 (p = 0.0219), and BDI (p = 0.0011) scores. Among the measured SCFAs, only the butyric acid concentration in PG increased significantly during supplementation (baseline vs. follow-up—p = 0.0338) and was higher in PG than in CG at the study’s end (p = 0.0248). However, in the PG, changes in the concentrations of all analyzed acids correlated with a reduction in the severity of anxiety symptoms measured using the HADS-A. Conclusions: Psychobiotic supplementation in individuals recovering from COVID-19 who exhibit anxiety and/or depressive symptoms led to mood improvement and a reduction in symptom severity, and it may serve as a supportive treatment.

Chronic psychological stress negatively affects systems including the female reproductive axis. Ovarian reserve, reflecting oocyte quantity and quality, is a determinant of fertility and reproductive aging. In contemporary society, uncertainty, economic instability, poor work-life balance, and expanding social roles of women contribute to delayed childbearing and attention to age-related fertility decline. This review evaluates the impact and long-term consequences of chronic psychological stress on ovarian reserve and reproductive aging in women. A narrative review was performed using PubMed and Scopus. The search included publications from the past 20 years on chronic psychological stress, ovarian reserve, ovarian dysfunction, premature ovarian insufficiency, and reproductive aging. Guidelines, original studies, and reviews were analyzed. Studies suggest that women exposed to chronic stress often report increased perceived stress before reproductive dysfunction appears. Clinical and demographic data indicate that chronic stress, emotional trauma, and major life events may contribute to ovarian dysfunction and act as triggers of premature ovarian insufficiency. These factors are associated with reduced ovarian reserve markers and hormonal changes, including altered AMH, FSH, and cortisol. Overall, evidence supports a possible link between chronic psychological stress and accelerated reproductive aging, although findings remain heterogeneous due to differences in study design, stress assessment, populations, and outcomes. Chronic stress appears to be associated with impaired ovarian function, decreased ovarian reserve, and earlier reproductive aging. These findings underline the need to identify at-risk women and integrate stress management, support, and preventive counseling into reproductive health care. Further studies are needed to clarify mechanisms, define biomarkers, and guide clinical practice.

Background. Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) is an increasingly recognized health problem among endurance athletes. The main mechanism leading to the development of RED-S is low energy availability (LEA), resulting from insufficient energy intake in relation to exercise energy expenditure. Chronic energy deficiency may lead to hormonal, metabolic and regenerative disturbances, as well as impaired bone health and an increased risk of stress fractures. Aim. The aim of this review was to summarize current knowledge regarding RED-S in endurance athletes, with particular emphasis on the impact of low energy availability on bone health and the risk of stress fractures. Material and methods. This review was based on an analysis of scientific literature available in PubMed and Google Scholar databases. Publications concerning RED-S, low energy availability, bone health, hormonal mechanisms, and stress fractures in endurance athletes were included. The analysis included review articles, observational studies, cross-sectional studies, and expert consensus statements published mainly between 2014 and 2026. Results. The analyzed studies indicate that chronic LEA contributes to disturbances in the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis, reduced sex hormone concentrations, increased cortisol levels, and decreased IGF-1 concentrations. These hormonal alterations negatively affect bone remodeling processes, leading to decreased bone mineral density and increased susceptibility to bone stress injuries and stress fractures. Female athletes with menstrual disturbances and adolescent athletes during the period of peak bone mass acquisition appear to be particularly vulnerable. RED-S affects both elite and recreational athletes. Conclusions. RED-S constitutes a significant health concern in endurance sports. Early identification of LEA symptoms, appropriate nutritional support, and proper training load management are essential for preventing long-term bone complications. Multidisciplinary care and education of athletes, coaches, and healthcare professionals play a key role in the prevention and management of RED-S.

Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is a steroid prohormone synthesized in the skin as a result of UV-B light exposure or by dietary intake. In addition to the already proven action on calcium phosphate metabolism and bone physiology, there is an increasing body of research showing that vitamin D3 may impact carcinogenesis and cancer progression. The aim of this literature review was to summarize current knowledge regarding the biological mechanisms of vitamin D₃ and its potential impact on cancer risk, progression, and patient survival. Multiple observational trials have confirmed that there is an inverse relationship between levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] and the risk as well as mortality rates associated with some types of cancer, especially colorectal and breast cancers. However, findings from randomized controlled trials evaluating primary cancer prevention remain inconclusive. Such contradicting findings have been linked to limitations in research design, which include insufficient supplementation doses, inclusion of participants with adequate baseline vitamin D status, and relatively short follow-up periods. Vitamin D exerts its action via the vitamin D receptor (VDR) at the molecular level. It affects the gene expression related to various functions such as the cell cycle, apoptosis, cellular differentiation, immune modulation, and inflammatory processes. Current scientific evidence supports a mechanism by which vitamin D3 could play a part in the prevention of cancer. However, clear clinical recommendations require further well-designed randomized controlled trials incorporating adequate supplementation doses and focusing on populations with vitamin D deficiency.