Competition between athletes and an increase in sporting knowledge have greatly influenced training methods while increasing the number of them more and more. As a result, the number of athletes who have increased the number and intensity of their workouts while decreasing recovery times is rising. Positive overtraining could be considered a natural and fundamental process when the result is adaptation and improved performance; however, in the absence of adequate recovery, negative overtraining could occur, causing fatigue, maladaptation, and inertia. One of the earliest forms of fatigue is overreaching. It is considered to be an accumulation of training that leads to reduced sports performance, requiring days or weeks to recover. Overreaching, if followed by adequate recovery, can lead to an increase in athletic performance. Nonetheless, if overreaching becomes extreme, combined with additional stressors, it could lead to overtraining syndrome (OTS). OTS, caused by systemic inflammation, leads to central nervous system (CNS) effects, including depressed mood, further inflammation, central fatigue, and ultimately neurohormonal changes. There are therefore not only physiological, biochemical, and immunological but also psychological symptoms or markers that must be considered, independently or together, being intrinsically linked with overtraining, to fully understand OTS. However, to date, there are very few published studies that have analyzed how nutrition in its specific food aspects, if compromised during OTS, can be both etiology and consequence of the syndrome. To date, OTS has not yet been fully studied, and the topic needs further research. The purpose of this narrative review is therefore to study how a correct diet and nutrition can influence OTS in all its aspects, from prevention to treatment.

Wheelchair basketball (WB) is an increasingly popular sport that guarantees numerous health benefits for people with disabilities who regularly practice it, such as an improved quality of life and psychophysical well-being. However, WB is a contact and high-stress sport, which exposes players to frequent overloads and injuries, mainly affecting the upper limbs. Therefore, shoulder pain (SP) is the most common musculoskeletal disorder among WB players, forcing them to suspend or abandon this sport activity. This narrative review aims to summarize all the known literature on this topic and to be a starting point for further research. Firstly, it explores the biomechanical causes that lead to SP and the underlying diseases, among which the most recurrent are rotator cuff tendinopathies. Furthermore, this overview deepens the most effective and specific rehabilitation programs for SP in WB players and it emphasizes the need for further studies to trial new rehabilitative protocols using novel technologies to make them faster and more personalized. In this regard, the general recommendation still remains to perform a combination of exercises such as strengthening, endurance and stretching exercises of various durations and intensities. To conclude, the most important prevention strategies are described, underlining the need for constant sport-specific training led by qualified personnel and suggesting some insights on possible new research aimed at improving wheelchair ergonomics, stressing the importance of a multidisciplinary team fully dedicated to the individual athlete.

Background. In multicultural educational contexts, schools are increasingly required to promote inclusive practices that support the social integration and well-being of students with a migrant background. Physical activity has been identified as a potentially effective tool for fostering relational and intercultural skills; however, empirical evidence based on structured interventions remains limited. Objectives. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a structured, inclusion-oriented physical activity programme in improving social inclusion, self-esteem, and classroom climate among lower secondary school students, with particular attention to those with a migrant background. Materials and Methods. A mixed-method quasi-experimental design with pre-test and post-test measures was adopted. The sample consisted of 72 students aged 11–13 years, divided into an experimental group (n = 36) and a control group (n = 36). The 12-week intervention included cooperative learning, peer tutoring, non-verbal communication activities, and culturally relevant games. Quantitative data were collected using validated instruments (SISCA, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Classroom Climate Scale) and analysed using t-tests and repeated measures ANOVA. Qualitative data were gathered through focus groups, teacher logbooks, and systematic observation. Results. The experimental group showed statistically significant improvements compared to the control group. Social inclusion scores increased from M = 2.91 (SD = 0.43) to M = 3.47 (SD = 0.38) (F(1,70) = 14.62; p = 0.001). Self-esteem improved from M = 21.8 (SD = 3.6) to M = 25.1 (SD = 3.2) (t = 4.07; p = 0.002). Classroom climate scores increased from M = 3.02 (SD = 0.40) to M = 3.55 (SD = 0.36) (F(1,70) = 11.89; p = 0.003). No statistically significant changes were observed in the control group (p > 0.05). Qualitative findings corroborated these results, indicating improvements in peer relationships, non-verbal communication, and sense of belonging. Conclusions. Under structured and theory-driven conditions, physical activity programmes based on inclusive pedagogical strategies can significantly enhance social inclusion, self-esteem, and classroom climate in multicultural lower secondary school settings. These findings support the implementation of targeted physical activity interventions as an effective approach to promoting social integration and psychological well-being among students, particularly those with a migrant background.

Background/Objectives. Increasing evidence suggests that nutrition and sport participation may positively influence cognitive functioning, readiness for learning, and academic achievement during adolescence. However, limited research has investigated the combined effects of structured breakfast programs and cognitively oriented sport-based interventions implemented in real school settings. The present study aimed to examine the associations between participation in an integrated school-based program consisting of structured breakfast and morning sport sessions and executive functions, physiological well-being, school engagement, and academic achievement in adolescent students. Methods. A 16-week quasi-experimental pre–post study with class-based allocation was conducted in a secondary school in Southern Italy. A total of 110 students aged 14–16 years participated in the study. The experimental group, comprising 55 students, participated in a structured breakfast program combined with cognitively oriented morning sport-based sessions conducted three times per week for 40 min before regular lessons, whereas the control group continued ordinary school activities. Cognitive assessment included the Stroop Color and Word Test and the Digit Span Test in both forward and backward conditions. Physiological measures included body mass index, resting heart rate, and the 20 m shuttle run test. Nutritional habits, school engagement, and academic achievement were also evaluated through questionnaires and school records. Results. Compared with the control group, students participating in the integrated program showed more favorable changes in selective attention, inhibitory control, working memory performance, cardiorespiratory fitness, breakfast habits, and school engagement over the study period. Moderate positive changes in academic achievement were also observed, whereas no substantial anthropometric changes emerged during the study period. Conclusions. The findings suggest that participation in an integrated school-based program combining structured nutrition and cognitively oriented sport activities was associated with improvements in cognitive functioning, healthy habits, and academic outcomes during adolescence. These findings highlight the potential value of multidimensional educational approaches integrating health promotion and learning processes within school environments.

Objectives. The study aimed to determine the effects of an eight-week school-based basketball training programme on dribbling and shooting performance in upper secondary school students and to examine accompanying changes in motor awareness, perceived self-efficacy, motivation, and peer collaboration. Materials and Methods. Eighteen students aged 15–17 years participated in a single-group pre-test–post-test pilot study. The intervention consisted of two 60-minute sessions per week for eight weeks and included progressive technical exercises, pair and small-group tasks, simplified game situations, formative feedback, and reflection activities. Basketball-specific performance was assessed using the AAHPERD Control Dribble Test and Speed Spot Shooting Test. Qualitative data were obtained using a technical-motor observational rubric and a semi-structured focus group. Pre–post differences were analysed using paired-samples t-tests, and effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s d. Results. Control Dribble Test performance improved from 25.51 ± 2.84 s to 21.76 ± 2.37 s, with a mean difference of −3.75 s (95% CI: −4.52 to −2.98; t(17) = −10.28; p < .001; d = 2.42). Speed Spot Shooting Test scores increased from 4.78 ± 1.21 to 6.56 ± 1.18 successful shots, with a mean difference of 1.78 shots (95% CI: 1.27–2.29; t(17) = 8.00; p < .001; d = 1.89). Qualitative analysis indicated improvements in movement control, technical awareness, perceived self-efficacy, motivation, error management, and peer collaboration. Conclusions. The eight-week basketball programme was associated with substantial improvements in dribbling and shooting performance in upper secondary school students. Positive changes were also observed in students’ awareness of movement execution and engagement in the learning process. Given the small sample size and the absence of a control group, the findings should be interpreted as preliminary.

Background. CrossFit is a high-intensity training method involving varied functional movements that is potentially effective for improving aerobic endurance. Objectives. This study used a mixed-methods approach to evaluate the effects of a structured CrossFit programme on cardiorespiratory fitness, combining objective measurements with the athletes’ subjective perceptions. Materials and Methods. A total of 80 regular exercisers (aged 20–35) were divided into an experimental group (CrossFit) and a control group (weight training). A quantitative assessment was conducted using cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) at two time points (T0 and T1, after 12 weeks), analysing VO₂ max, ventilatory threshold and heart rate response to submaximal loads. In parallel, semi-structured interviews were conducted at the end of the intervention and analysed using thematic analysis. Results. The results showed greater improvements in the CrossFit group than in the control group, with an average increase in VO₂ max of +8.2% vs. +1.9%, an increase in ventilatory threshold of +6.4% vs. +1.1%, and a reduction in heart rate at the same load of −3.7% vs. −0.9%, respectively. Conclusions. The interviews confirmed better fatigue management, more efficient breathing, and the transfer of benefits to daily activities. Therefore, the findings indicate that a 12-week CrossFit programme appears to promote significant cardiorespiratory adaptations, consistent with the athletes’ perceptions.