Carbon is an essential component in the regulation of climate systems through the global biogeochemical cycle. However, changes in land use/land cover (LULC) have reduced the capacity of terrestrial ecosystems like watershed to store carbon. This shows the need for a policy framework that balances conservative objectives with agricultural demands, as watersheds are required to support carbon storage and food production. Previous studies have generally assessed carbon dynamics or LULC change separately, with limited integration of policy-driven scenarios. Therefore, this study aimed to conduct multi-scenario carbon storage modeling to evaluate LULC protection strategies in the Cimanuk Watershed, Indonesia, an area experiencing significant LULC pressures. The method used consisted of Support Vector Machine (SVM)–Markov, the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST), Geodetector, and Getis-Ord Gi*. A total of four scenarios were used to project LULC and carbon storage in 2042, which included Business as Usual (BAU), Paddy Field Protection (PFP), Forest Protection (FOP), and Paddy Field and Forest Protection (PFFOP). The results showed that forest area declined by 39,400 ha between 2015 and 2025, thereby reducing carbon storage. The PFFOP scenario was identified as the most viable, combining the protection of paddy fields and forests to balance agricultural production and carbon sequestration. Among the factors analyzed, slope exerted the greatest influence on carbon storage. Spatial cluster analysis showed that carbon hotspots were predominantly located in the upper Cimanuk sub-watershed. These results offered valuable insights into scenario-based sustainable watershed management to optimize carbon storage and maintain agricultural function. Furthermore, the proposed framework showed promising potential for application in other tropical watersheds, serving as a reference for decision-makers in sustainable watershed management.

This study develops a geomorphological identification methodology for wall reefs in the microcontinental environment of Wangiwangi Island, Indonesia, using medium-resolution Landsat 8 satellite imagery and morphological analysis based on Maxwell’s geomorphological framework. The uniqueness of the wall reef landform lies in the fact that the lagoon elongates on limestone, resulting in a habitat and ecosystem that develops differently from those of other shelf reefs, namely, platform reefs and plug reefs. Using Optimum Index Factor (OIF) optimization and RGB image composites, four reef types were successfully identified: cuspate reefs, open ring reefs, closed ring reefs, and resorbed reefs. A field check was conducted at fifteen observation sites, which included measurements of depth, turbidity, and water quality parameters, as well as an in situ benthic habitat inventory. The analysis results showed a strong correlation between image composites, geomorphological reef classes, and ecological conditions, confirming the successful adaptation of Maxwell’s classification to the Indonesian reef system. This hybrid integrated approach successfully maps the distribution of reefs on a complex continental shelf, providing an essential database for shallow-water spatial planning, ecosystem-based conservation, and sustainable management in the Coral Triangle region. Policy recommendations include zoning schemes for protected areas based on reef landform morphology, strengthening integrative monitoring systems, and utilizing high-resolution imagery and machine learning algorithms in further research.