Antioxidants are indispensable in protecting the skin from oxidative stress caused by environmental factors such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation, pollution, and lifestyle-related influences. This review examines the essential role of antioxidants in modern cosmetology, highlighting their dual functionality as protective agents and active components in skincare formulations. Oxidative stress, primarily driven by an imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and the skin’s defense mechanisms, accelerates aging processes, damages cellular structures, and compromises skin integrity. Antioxidants, whether natural or synthetic, act by neutralizing ROS, reducing inflammation, and promoting cellular repair, effectively mitigating these harmful effects. This comprehensive analysis synthesizes findings from 280 studies accessed via key databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect. It investigates the biochemical mechanisms of antioxidant activity, emphasizing compounds such as vitamins (C, E, A), carotenoids, polyphenols, peptides, and minerals, alongside bioactive extracts derived from algae, fungi, lichens, and plants. Carotenoids, including ꞵ-carotene, lutein, lycopene, and astaxanthin, demonstrate potent antioxidant activity, making them crucial for photoprotection and anti-aging. Phenolic compounds, such as ferulic acid, resveratrol, hesperidin, and xanthohumol, play a significant role in neutralizing oxidative stress and improving skin health. This review also highlights bioactives from algae, fungi, and lichens. Algae, particularly microalgae like Haematococcus pluvialis, known for astaxanthin production, are highlighted for their extraordinary photoprotective and anti-aging properties. Brown algae (Fucus vesiculosus) and red algae (Porphyra) provide polysaccharides and bioactive molecules that enhance hydration and barrier function. Fungi contribute a wealth of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds, including polysaccharides, ꞵ-glucans, and enzymes, which support cellular repair and protect against oxidative damage. Lichens, through unique phenolic metabolites, offer potent free-radical-scavenging properties and serve as effective ingredients in formulations targeting environmental stress. Plant-derived antioxidants offer a diverse range of benefits. Plant-derived antioxidants, such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, and carotenoids, further amplify skin resilience, hydration, and repair mechanisms, aligning with the growing demand for nature-inspired solutions in cosmetics. The integration of these diverse natural sources into cosmetic formulations reflects the industry’s commitment to sustainability, innovation, and efficacy. By harnessing the synergistic potential of bioactives from algae, fungi, lichens, and plants, modern cosmetology is advancing toward multifunctional, health-conscious, and eco-friendly products. Future research directions include optimizing delivery systems for these bioactives, enhancing their stability and bioavailability, and expanding their applications to meet evolving dermatological challenges.

Eryngium planum L. cell and organ cultures were maintained on Murashige and Skoog media (MS), supplemented with exogenous hormones of different types and various concentrations for high biomass growth. The callus and cell suspension cultures were treated with increased sucrose concentration and/or elicited by methyl jasmonate for the enhancement of selected phenolic acids accumulation. Three phenolic acids, rosmarinic acid (RA), chlorogenic acid (CGA) and caffeic acid (CA), were detected by HPLC-DAD in those cultures. The sum of their content in the dry material was found to be higher in the shoot culture (3.95 mg g⁻¹), root culture (7.05 mg g⁻¹), callus (6.20 mg g⁻¹) and cell suspension (2.04 mg g⁻¹) than in the leaves (1.87 mg g⁻¹) and roots (0.76 mg g⁻¹) of intact plants. The major compound of in vitro cultures was always rosmarinic acid. The content of RA could be increased approximately threefold (16.24 mg g⁻¹) in the callus culture and approximately twofold (3.91 mg g⁻¹) in the cell suspension culture by elicitation with 100 μM methyl jasmonate (MeJA). The higher concentration of sucrose (S) in the medium (5, 6 %) led to over a twofold increase of CGA content in the callus culture (2.54 mg g⁻¹). The three mentioned phenolic acids have been found in E. planum undifferentiated and differentiated in vitro cultures for the first time.

Ecdysteroids are secondary metabolites, widely distributed in the animal and plant kingdoms. They have a wide range of pharmacological effects in vertebrates, including mammals, most of which are beneficial for humans. Therefore, they have become compounds of interest for the pharmaceutical industry due to their adaptogenic, anabolic, hypoglycaemic, hypocholesterolaemic and antimicrobial activities, which are still being researched. Nowadays, ecdysteroids are present as active ingredients in bodybuilding supplements. Because of their complex structures, their chemical synthesis seems unprofitable and impractical. Due to high content of ecdysteroids in many plants, they are primarily obtained by extraction of the plant material. Plant in vitro cultures provide an alternative source of these compounds, helping to avoid problems associated with field production—such as variable yield or dependence on environmental factors, as well as limited availability of natural resources. Plant cell and tissue cultures may be suggested as alternatives for the production of plant biomass rich in pharmaceutically active ecdysteroids. Moreover, the use of common biotechnological strategies, such as elicitation or precursor feeding, may further increase the yield and improve production of these compounds. In this paper, we describe general information about ecdysteroids: their structure, biosynthesis, distribution, role in plants, and we review recent studies on micropropagation of ecdysteroid-producing plants and cell cultures, and potential ability of ecdysteroids enhancement in in vitro cultures.

A protocol for in vitro production of genetically uniform populations of the medicinal plant Eryngium planum, rich in selected phenolic acids, has been established. Shoot-tips were collected from axenic seedlings and grown on a Murashige and Skoog basal medium supplemented with 6-Benzyladenine (BA) and Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). The highest shoot proliferation efficiency (17 shoots per explant) was obtained when 1.0 mg L⁻¹ BA and 0.1 mg L⁻¹ were added. Proliferating shoots were rooted and transferred to soil (89 % frequency of survival). Flow cytometric analysis of intact (field-grown) and microrpropagated plants revealed that all plants were uniform in genome size and had similar DNA contents. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) analysis indicated that multiple shoots and roots from in vitro-derived plants produced high amounts of phenolic acids, primarily of rosmarinic acid (RA). Levels of phenolic acids in in vitro-derived plants were similar to those of intact plants. Furthermore, high-performance liquid chromatography revealed that root cultures in liquid medium accumulated substantial levels of RA. Thus, rapid establishment of in vitro-grown organ cultures of E. planum can also serve as reliable sources for bioactive compounds.

Eryngium maritimum L. is a valuable medicinal species, but since it is protected plant, collection from natural populations is forbidden. Therefore, establishing an efficient system for micropropagation of this species is desirable. To determine the optimal nutritional factors needed for shoot multiplication, root development and secondary metabolites accumulation, different media and plant growth regulators were tested. The highest plant regeneration efficiency (over 96 %), with 4.4 shoots per explant was induced on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 1.0 mg L⁻¹ benzyladenine (BA) and 0.1 mg L⁻¹ indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). The in vitro-regenerated shoots were rooted (83.3–100 %) and transferred to an experimental plot with 62 % efficiency. Flow cytometric analysis revealed no variation in nuclear DNA content in field- and in vitro-delivered plant material. Ultra high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) indicated that multiple shoots and roots from in vitro-regenerated plantlets and adventitious root cultures maintained the production of rosmarinic (RA) and chlorogenic (CGA) acids and triterpenoid saponins found in the rosette leaves and roots of E. maritimum intact plants. UHPLC revealed a 12-fold increase of RA and CGA and 3.2-fold higher accumulation of triterpenoid saponins in roots of in vitro-derived plantlets in comparison to roots from field-grown plants. Adventitious root cultures allowed continuous growth of excised root in liquid media with or without exogenous auxins. The roots grown in liquid medium supplemented with 0.1 mg L⁻¹ IAA showed higher (227-fold) phenolic acids accumulation than those without auxin. Obtained results confirmed that micropropagation is a useful strategy in the protection of endangered species and a renewable source of a high quality plant material for secondary metabolites production.

In vitro cultures give the opportunity to perform the phytochemical studies on the protected species without harvesting the plant material from the natural environment. Shoots of Eryngium alpinum L. were multiplied on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium in various systems, namely on the solid media and in two liquid cultures—stationary and agitated, as well as via regeneration from callus. The biomass increments were closely correlated with the number of shoots arising from one explant, which was connected with the supplementation of the culture media with the studied plant growth regulators. The methanolic extracts from shoots grown in the tested systems were subjected to phenolic acids and flavonoids qualitative and quantitative analysis. Biomass from in vitro shoot cultures accumulated from 19.59 to 32.95 times more phenolic acids [the total content ranged from 272.52 to 458.38 mg/100 g dry weight (DW)] and from 3.02 to 4.43 times more flavonoids (the total content ranged from 100.03 to 146.98 mg/100 g DW), depending on the culture system, than the extracts from basal leaves from the intact plant (13.91 and 33.16 mg/100 g DW, respectively). The phenolics present in shoot cultures include seven phenolic acids—3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic, caftaric, caffeic, neochlorogenic, chlorogenic, isochlorogenic, and rosmarinic acids, and three flavonoids—isoquercetin, quercitrin and robinin. The best system for shoot proliferation resulting in the highest biomass growth and phenolic acids and flavonoids accumulation was solid culture on MS medium with BAP, IAA, and GA₃ (each 1.0 mg/l). The aim of this work was to check the effect of various culture systems (stationary and agitated, on solidified and in liquid media) on the production of phenolic compounds in E. alpinum shoots cultured in vitro.