Background: Posterior segment eye diseases, including age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy, are preeminent causes of vision loss worldwide. Effective drug delivery to the retina poses an ongoing therapeutic difficulty due to the presence of the anatomical and physiological barriers. Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems represent a promising strategy to overcome those limitations. Methods: A narrative literature review was conducted using the PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases, covering publications published between 2020 and 2026. Publications evaluating nanoparticles for the treatment of the vitreoretinal disorders, including pre-clinical in vitro and in vivo studies, were analyzed. Results: Nanocarriers, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and lipid-based systems, established improved drug bioavailability, stability, and targeted delivery. The analyzed systems facilitate sustained drug release and potentially reduce the prevalence of invasive intravitreal injections. The nanocarriers’ effectiveness is primarily influenced by their physicochemical properties, such as particle size, surface charge, and encapsulation efficiency. Nonetheless, the production costs and safety aspects, including cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses, remain as significant limitations. Conclusions: Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems serve as an auspicious therapeutic approach for posterior segment eye diseases. However, further standardized preclinical and clinical research is required to assure long-term safety, and enable successful clinical transition.

Background: Posterior segment eye diseases, including age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy, are preeminent causes of vision loss worldwide. Effective drug delivery to the retina poses an ongoing therapeutic difficulty due to the presence of the anatomical and physiological barriers. Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems represent a promising strategy to overcome those limitations. Methods: A narrative literature review was conducted using the PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases, covering publications published between 2019 and 2026. Publications evaluating nanoparticles for the treatment of the vitreoretinal disorders, including pre-clinical in vitro and in vivo studies, were analyzed. Results: Nanocarriers, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and lipid-based systems, established improved drug bioavailability, stability, and targeted delivery. The analyzed systems facilitate sustained drug release and potentially reduce the prevalence of invasive intravitreal injections. The nanocarriers’ effectiveness is primarily influenced by their physicochemical properties, such as particle size, surface charge, and encapsulation efficiency. Nonetheless, the production costs and safety aspects, including cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses, remain as significant limitations. Conclusions: Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems serve as an auspicious therapeutic approach for posterior segment eye diseases. However, further standardized preclinical and clinical research is required to assure long-term safety and enable successful clinical transition.

Background: Eye diseases represent a significant public health problem. The effectiveness of ophthalmic pharmacotherapy largely depends on efficient drug delivery to the eye tissues. Conventional eye drops exhibit low bioavailability due to anatomical and physiological barriers. Nanotechnology offers novel strategies to enhance drug penetration, retention, and controlled release within the anterior segment of the eye. This study aimed to systematically analyze preclinical research on the use of nanocarriers in drug delivery to the anterior segment. Methods: A literature review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases, covering English-language publications from 2019 to 2025. Preclinical studies evaluating nanocarriers for the treatment of anterior segment eye diseases and available in full text were included. Results: The analyzed studies indicate that nanocarriers, including solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanomicelles, and polymeric nanoparticles, enhance drug bioavailability by improving mucoadhesion, facilitating penetration through the corneal epithelium, and prolonging ocular surface retention time. Key physicochemical parameters include small particle size, low polydispersity index, appropriate zeta potential, and high encapsulation efficiency. Preclinical models demonstrated improved therapeutic outcomes, including greater intraocular pressure reduction in glaucoma, increased tear production in dry eye syndrome, and enhanced anti-inflammatory and antifungal effects compared with conventional preparations. Conclusions: Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems represent a promising strategy for improving therapy of the anterior segment eye diseases. However, further preclinical and clinical studies are required to confirm their clinical applicability.

Fatal free falls (FFF) represent a distinct form of blunt force trauma and pose a significant challenge in forensic investigations, particularly in estimating fall height and differentiating between accidental and suicidal events. Postmortem computed tomography (PMCT) enables detailed assessment of skeletal injuries, including quantitative evaluation of skull fracture patterns. Total Cranial Fracture Length (TCFL), derived from three-dimensional CT skull fracture scoring (3D-CT-SF), has been proposed as an objective indicator of impact severity; however, available evidence remains limited. This study aimed to assess the relationship between TCFL and fall height in fatal free falls and to evaluate the influence of selected anthropometric and biomechanical variables on cranial fracture severity. A retrospective analysis of 76 fatal free-fall cases examined between 2016 and 2024 was conducted using PMCT and autopsy data. TCFL was measured on three-dimensional volume-rendered CT reconstructions of calvarial fractures. Statistical analyses were performed for the entire cohort and separately for accidental and suicidal falls. No significant correlation between TCFL and fall height was observed in the overall cohort or among suicide cases. In contrast, a significant negative correlation between TCFL and fall height category was identified in accidental falls. TCFL showed significant positive correlations with body mass, body mass index (BMI), and kinetic energy, particularly in the suicide subgroup. TCFL is a promising objective parameter for assessing the severity of cranial injury in fatal free-fall cases. While its utility in estimating fall height appears limited in suicidal falls, TCFL may support forensic interpretation of fall dynamics and contribute to distinguishing the manner of death, especially in accidental cases. Further studies in larger, more diverse populations are warranted.

Introduction: Autism spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by multilevel alterations in brain organization and function, leading to deficits in social communication and repetitive behaviors. Current diagnosis relies primarily on behavioral phenotype assessment, which usually enables diagnosis no earlier than the second year of life. Objective ophthalmological methods, such as optical coherence tomography and pupillary light reflex assessment, do not require verbal or motor responses and may therefore be applicable in infants. This review summarizes recent clinical studies evaluating ophthalmic biomarkers of autism spectrum disorder and their clinical utility. Materials and methods: A structured review of English-language publications from 2020–2025 was conducted using PubMed and Scopus databases. Following the removal of duplicates and screening based on titles and abstracts, study design and publication type, 68 records were included in the qualitative analysis. Results: Children with autism spectrum disorder showed significant differences in pupillary reflex parameters (including a larger baseline pupil diameter and altered latency of the response) and changes in retinal layer thickness on optical coherence tomography, particularly in the ganglion cell layer, inner nuclear layer and inner plexiform layer, indicating their potential as biomarkers of the disorder. Discussion and conclusions: Pupillary light reflex and optical coherence tomography findings may reflect autonomic dysregulation and atypical neural network development in autism spectrum disorder. However, limited specificity, heterogenity of results and small sample sizes indicate that these techniques should currently be considered supportive rather than independent diagnostic tools.