Interleukin-10 (IL-10), a potent anti-inflammatory cytokine, plays a vital role in regulating immune responses across various infectious and inflammatory conditions. While IL-10 is essential for preventing excessive tissue damage and maintaining immune homeostasis (e.g., respiratory syncytial virus), its elevated levels could result in immunosuppression during viral infections, enabling viruses to evade host defenses (e.g., foot-and-mouth disease virus). This review aims to elucidate the mechanisms through which IL-10 mediates immunosuppression in viral infections and to explore the implications of these mechanisms for therapeutic intervention. The key scientific concepts outlined in this review include the mechanisms of IL-10 production and its varied impacts on the immune response during viral infections. Specifically, we discuss the multifaceted inhibitory effects of IL-10 on innate and adaptive immunity, including its implications for antigen presentation, T cells activation, pro-inflammatory cytokine production, immune cell differentiation, trafficking, apoptosis, and co-inhibitory expression related to T cells exhaustion. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting IL-10, such as monoclonal antibodies and small molecule inhibitors, and their potential to restore effective immune responses. By summarizing current knowledge on IL-10’s role in viral infections, this review offers a thorough insight into its immunosuppressive mechanisms and their therapeutic potential, paving the way for innovative treatment strategies in viral diseases.

In dairy goat farming, increasing the female kid rate is beneficial to milk production and is, therefore, economically beneficial to farms. Our previous study demonstrated that alkaline incubation enriched the concentration of X-chromosome-bearing sperm; however, the mechanism by which pH affects the motility of X-chromosome-bearing sperm remains unclear. In this study, we explored this mechanism by incubating dairy goat sperm in alkaline dilutions, examining the pattern of changes in sperm internal pH and Ca²⁺ concentrations and investigating the role of the sAC/cAMP/PKA pathway in influencing sperm motility. The results showed that adding a calcium channel inhibitor during incubation resulted in a concentration-dependent decrease in the proportion of spermatozoa with forward motility, and the sperm sAC protein activity was positively correlated with the calcium ion concentration (r = 0.9972). The total motility activity, proportion of forward motility, and proportion of X-chromosome-bearing sperm decreased (p < 0.05) when cAMP/PKA protease activity was inhibited. Meanwhile, the enrichment of X-chromosome-bearing sperm by pH did not affect the sperm capacitation state. These results indicate that alkaline dilution incubation reduces Ca²⁺ entry into X-sperm and the motility was slowed down through the sAC/cAMP/PKA signaling pathway, providing a theoretical foundation for further optimization of the sex control method.

The escalating global burden of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) necessitates diagnostic strategies that can overcome the limitations of conventional culture-based methods, which often require several days to generate clinically actionable results. Such delays are associated with increased mortality, inappropriate antibiotic use, and continued transmission of resistant pathogens. In this context, microfluidic chip technology has emerged as a promising platform for rapid, miniaturized, and increasingly automated point-of-care diagnostics. Recent advances have enabled integrated lab-on-a-chip systems that combine bacterial isolation, phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and genotypic resistance detection within closed and self-contained architectures, thereby reducing contamination risk and operator dependence. In addition, these platforms are increasingly capable of operating at single-cell resolution, allowing the detection of heteroresistance and resistant subpopulations that may be overlooked by conventional bulk assays. A major advantage of microfluidic systems is their ability to bridge phenotypic and genotypic diagnostics by enabling real-time monitoring of bacterial growth, metabolic activity, and morphological responses to antibiotics while simultaneously incorporating on-chip nucleic acid amplification for resistance gene detection. This integrated approach improves the interpretation of discrepancies between genetic determinants and functional resistance. Studies to date have demonstrated high sensitivity and specificity in complex clinical matrices, including blood, urine, and sputum, with turnaround times reduced from days to less than one hour in some applications. Furthermore, the integration of CRISPR-Cas systems, nanomaterial-enhanced biosensing, and machine learning has further improved analytical performance and data interpretation. Nevertheless, important translational challenges remain, including scalable manufacturing, regulatory standardization, and integration into routine clinical workflows. Future microfluidic platforms are expected to support multiplexed, intelligent antimicrobial susceptibility testing capable of simultaneous pathogen identification, resistance profiling, and therapeutic guidance, thereby advancing precision diagnostics for AMR management.