Water resources are crucial in developing any area as they serve as a major source of potable, agricultural, and industrial water. Water contamination, caused by natural and anthropogenic activities, poses a significant threat to public health globally. This review synthesizes data from various studies published in national and international journals, as well as reports from governmental and non-governmental organizations. Our primary objective is to understand and review previous research on water pollution, contamination types, and the effects of water contamination on public health. Water pollution studies generally involve a scientific understanding of the biological, chemical, and physical processes that control the movement of contaminants in the underground environment. The nature and severity of health consequences vary based on several factors, including the chemical composition, duration of exposure, and concentration of pollutants. This work highlights the human health risks associated with current research topics such as anthropogenic, geogenic, microplastics, pharmaceuticals, and heavy metals. A section on remedial measures and mitigation strategies is included to emphasize sustainable approaches to water conservation, replenishment, and sustainability. However, there is a lack of comprehensive knowledge regarding the distribution, toxic effects, and human health risks associated with different sources of contamination. This review thus establishes links between multiple sources of pollution, their toxicity to human health, and approaches to health risk assessment.

A detailed investigation was carried out in Shanmuganadhi basin, South India, to delineate the fluoride and nitrate concentrations in groundwater and their impacts on human health. Sixty-one groundwater samples were collected and examined for several parameters such as pH, EC, TDS, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻, Na⁺, K⁺, SO₄²⁻, NO₃⁻, PO₄³⁻ and F⁻. The results of the study indicate that 23% and 49% of the groundwater samples exceed the permissible limits of fluoride and nitrate for consumption, respectively. Therefore, consumption of F⁻- and NO₃⁻-rich groundwater could cause health hazards. To evaluate the health risk, total hazard index (THI) and hazard quotient (HQ) were computed based on the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) guidelines. The results of the assessment indicate that the total non-carcinogenic risks for children and adults (men) range from 0.02 to 7.66 and from 0.1 to 5.67, respectively. Furthermore, 80% and 69% of the samples surpass the recommended limit of the THI (HQ > 1) for children and men, respectively. It suggests that children are more vulnerable than adults (men) for health risk in Shanmuganadhi basin.

The main objective of the present study is to perform risk assessment of groundwater contaminated by nitrate (NO₃⁻) and evaluate the suitability of groundwater for domestic purposes in the Palani region of South India. Thirty groundwater samples were collected in the study area. Various groundwater quality analysis parameters such as the pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total hardness, major cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, and K⁺), and major anions (Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, F⁻, CO₃²⁻, and HCO₃⁻) were adopted in this study to evaluate the drinking water suitability according to 2011 World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Piper and Gibbs’s diagrams for the tested groundwater indicated that, due to the influence of rock–water interactions, evaporation, and reverse ion exchange, the chemical composition of groundwater varied. According to water quality index (WQI) mapping results, 46.67% of the sample locations was identified as contaminated zones via GIS spatial analysis. Multivariate statistical analysis methods, such as principal component analysis, cluster analysis, and the Pearson correlation matrix, were applied to better understand the relationship between water quality parameters. The results demonstrated that 40% of the samples could be identified as highly affected zones in the study region due to a high nitrate concentration. The noncarcinogenic health risks among men, women, and children reached 40, 50, and 53%, respectively. The results illustrated that children and women occurred at a higher risk than did men in the study region. The major sources of contamination included discharge from households, uncovered septic tanks, leachate from waste dump sites, and excess utilization of fertilizers in the agricultural sector. Furthermore, using the nitrate health hazard integrated method with the conventional indexing approach ensures that groundwater reliability can be guaranteed, contamination can be explored, and appropriate remedial measures can be implemented.