Neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), arise from highly interconnected molecular and cellular abnormalities that progressively lead to neuronal dysfunction, synaptic failure, and cell death. This review provides a unified framework to understand the interrelated molecular mechanisms driving these diseases, with a focus on identifying key disease-specific intervention nodes. Core contributors include oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, protein aggregation, neuroinflammation, and emerging roles of peroxisomal dysfunction in redox imbalance, lipid dysregulation, and inflammatory amplification. Single-target therapies often show limited efficacy due to the complex, interconnected nature of these pathways. In contrast, polypharmacology, which targets multiple disease-relevant mechanisms simultaneously, offers a more promising therapeutic strategy. This review critically examines how pathway crosstalk drives neurodegenerative progression, with particular emphasis on mitochondrial–ROS–inflammatory signaling, aggregation–proteostasis failure, synaptic–neuroimmune dysfunction, and gut–brain communication. It evaluates various multi-node intervention strategies, including multi-target-directed ligands (MTDLs), molecular hybrids, natural products, drug repurposing, and nanocarrier-based delivery systems. Advances in network pharmacology, artificial intelligence (AI), bioinformatics, and multi-omics have enhanced the identification of actionable therapeutic nodes, candidate compounds, and brain-targeted delivery platforms. Notably, the NOD-like receptor pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome and cyclic GMP–AMP synthase (cGAS)—stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathways—play distinct roles in neuroinflammation, amplifying neuronal damage by releasing inflammatory cytokines and inducing mitochondrial dysfunction. However, successful translation into clinical practice remains constrained by challenges such as blood–brain barrier penetration, patient heterogeneity, and biomarker limitations. The review advocates for a shift towards mechanism-informed, patient-stratified polypharmacological strategies to better address the network pathology of neurodegeneration, despite significant translational hurdles.

The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial pathogens such as Klebsiella pneumoniae has intensified the global demand for alternative therapeutic agents. Magnesium oxide nanoparticles (MgO-NPs) possess promising antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties, making them potential candidates for addressing resistance-related challenges. This study aimed to evaluate the antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-biofilm, and anticancer activities of MgO-NPs against MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates. Objective: To evaluate the antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-biofilm, and anticancer activities of MgO-NPs against multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates. Methods: A laboratory-based experimental study was conducted from February to July 2025 at The University of Faisalabad, in collaboration with the Department of Microbiology, Government College University Faisalabad. Three MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates (K.p1, K.p2, K.p3) were tested. Antibacterial activity was determined using agar well diffusion and broth microdilution methods for MIC and MBC estimation. Antioxidant capacity was evaluated via the DPPH radical scavenging assay. Anti-biofilm potential was assessed using crystal violet microtiter plate assays, and anticancer efficacy was tested on HepG2 liver carcinoma cells using the MTT assay. All experiments were conducted in triplicate, and data were analyzed using SPSS v25.0 with a significance level set at p < 0.05. Results: MgO-NPs demonstrated strong, dose-dependent antibacterial effects against MDR K. pneumoniae isolates, with maximum zones of inhibition of 34 mm at 2 mg/mL and MIC values ranging from 125–250 µg/mL. MBC/MIC ratios of 2 confirmed bactericidal activity. Biofilm inhibition reached 88.9% at 1 mg/mL, while pre-established biofilm reduction exceeded 80% across isolates. The DPPH assay revealed concentration-dependent antioxidant activity, achieving 65.3 ± 1.2% radical scavenging at 200 µg/mL, compared to 93.4% for ascorbic acid. MTT assays indicated significant cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells, with 76.5 ± 2.4% cell death at 500 µg/mL concentration, confirming potent anticancer potential. Conclusion: MgO nanoparticles exhibited significant antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-biofilm, and anticancer activities, highlighting their potential as broad-spectrum bioactive agents. Their bactericidal and cytotoxic effects suggest a promising role in managing MDR bacterial infections and hepatocellular carcinoma. Further in vivo studies are recommended to validate their safety and therapeutic efficacy for clinical application, particularly in regions with high antibiotic resistance such as Pakistan.

Background: Surgical site infections (SSIs) remain a major contributor to postoperative morbidity, prolonged hospitalization, and increased healthcare costs. Rising antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among causative pathogens further complicates treatment, underscoring the need for local microbiological surveillance to guide empirical therapy. Objective: To determine the microbial etiology and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of pathogens isolated from SSIs in postoperative patients. Study Design: Observational cross-sectional study. Setting: Department of Pathology, Allied Hospital, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Duration of Study: July 2022 to December 2022. Methods: A total of 100 wound swabs and pus specimens were collected from adult patients in surgical and orthopedic wards with clinically suspected SSIs. Samples were processed using standard microbiological protocols, and isolates were identified through biochemical testing. Antimicrobial susceptibility was evaluated using the Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method, following CLSI guidelines. Data were analyzed with SPSS version 17.0. Results: Of the 100 bacterial isolates, 45% were Gram-positive and 55% were Gram-negative organisms. Staphylococcus aureus was the most frequent pathogen (43%), followed by Escherichia coli (36%), Pseudomonas spp. (9%), Proteus spp. (4%), and Klebsiella spp. (3%). S. aureus demonstrated high resistance to penicillin (88%) and ampicillin (82%) but remained fully susceptible to vancomycin (100%) and highly sensitive to linezolid (98%) and amikacin (90%). Gram-negative isolates showed high resistance to ampicillin (96.7%) and cotrimoxazole (93.3%), while colistin (100%), amikacin (88.3%), and meropenem (81%) were the most effective agents. Conclusion: S. aureus and E. coli were the predominant pathogens in SSIs, both exhibiting high resistance to first-line antibiotics. Culture-guided therapy, reinforced infection control practices, and continuous antimicrobial surveillance are critical to improving SSI management and combating AMR in surgical settings.

The rapid and accurate diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, is crucial for controlling its spread and managing public health responses. SARS-CoV-2 is an airborne virus transmitted through direct contact or respiratory droplets from infected individuals. While some patients exhibit clear symptoms, others remain asymptomatic, making early detection essential to prevent further transmission. Diagnostic methods for SARS-CoV-2 primarily rely on two strategies: detecting viral RNA and identifying virus-specific antigens or antibodies. Viral RNA detection through reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) remains the gold standard for identifying active infections. In contrast, immunochromatographic techniques (ICT) offer a rapid and cost-effective alternative by detecting viral antigens or host antibodies. Immunological assays such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), chemiluminescent immunoassay (CLIA), and lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) play a complementary role in identifying individuals with current or past infections. This review explores various molecular and serological methods for SARS-CoV-2 detection. RT-PCR offers high sensitivity and specificity, detecting viral RNA in respiratory samples, saliva, blood, urine, and stool within hours. However, it requires expensive equipment and trained personnel, with accuracy affected by sample quality and test kit efficiency. CRISPR-based detection provides high sensitivity and specificity, delivering results within an hour and integrating with lateral flow assays without the need for a thermocycler. Lateral flow assays enable rapid detection within 15 minutes by non-professionals but are limited by delayed antibody production. ELISA and CLIA are useful for immunity assessment, though ELISA lacks early detection capabilities, and CLIA is costly, limiting accessibility in economically challenged regions. Selecting an optimal method depends on available resources, accuracy, and the need for rapid diagnosis.

Introduction: Thalassemia represents a genetic blood disorder that people obtain from their parents through hereditary materials since their bodies produce abnormal types of hemoglobin. The red blood cell destruction occurs in high numbers because of this disorder thus producing anemia.It is a prevalent disease, and in our society, its prevalence is 75%, with 35% of cases in females and 40% in males. Most of the cases are of beta thalassemia major. Objective: We are conducting this research so that in the future, we can correlate the disease with comorbidity in order to reduce the prevalence and so to improve treatment. Method: The study design of this research was retrospective cross-sectional study. We made a questionnaire provided to participants for gathering data.This was followed by a peripheral blood smear to assess cell morphology. Iron deficiency tests were then conducted to rule out other causes of anemia. The questionnaire was carefully designed to gather detailed information on patient and family history, lifestyle, awareness levels, and genetic background Patients were monitored through a follow-up process. Result: The study found that 75% of participants were affected by thalassemia, with 40% males and 35% females, and most cases were beta thalassemia major. Blood tests like CBC confirmed genetic anemia, not due to iron deficiency. The majority of participants lacked awareness about the disease and its hereditary nature, highlighting the need for screening and education programs. Conclusion: In this review we will discuss about Investigate the Mortality, Morbidity and factors associate on Thalassemia patients in Faisalabad 2025Pakistan. Its prevalence rate is high about 75% which is 35% females and 40% males related to our research. Future Perspective: This study's findings will inform evidence-based healthcare policies and interventions to reduce mortality and morbidity in thalassemia patients in Faisalabad, Pakistan, ultimately improving patient outcomes and quality of life. The insights gained will also contribute to the development of targeted prevention strategies and optimized management protocols for thalassemia care in resource-constrained settings. Future research can build upon these findings to explore innovative solutions and best practices for thalassemia management in Pakistan.