COVID-19 is highly linked with hyperinflammation and dysfunction of the immune cells. Studies have shown that adequate nutrition, a modifiable factor affecting immunity and limiting systemic inflammation, may play an adjunct role in combating the negative consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Due to the global lockdown conditions, the COVID-19 pandemic has contributed, among others, to restrictions on fresh food availability and changes in lifestyle and eating behaviors. The aim of this paper was to review the data regarding eating habits in European countries within the general population of adults and some specific subpopulations, including obese, diabetic, and psychiatric patients, during the COVID-19 pandemic. The PubMed database and the official websites of medical organizations and associations were searched for the phrases “COVID” and “eating habits”. Papers regarding the pediatric population, non-European countries, presenting aggregated data from different countries worldwide, and reviews were excluded. During the COVID-19 pandemic, unhealthy lifestyles and eating behaviors were commonly reported. These included increased snacking, intake of caloric foods, such as sweets, pastries, and beverages, and a decline in physical activity. Data suggest that poor eating habits that create a positive energy balance have persisted over time as an additional post-COVID negative consequence.

Raman spectroscopy (RS) is an advanced optical technique that enables rapid, non-invasive, and highly specific chemical analysis of tissues and materials at the molecular level. In dentistry, RS shows significant clinical promise across various fields, including diagnostics, treatment monitoring, biomaterial assessment, and oral oncology. The technique allows for early detection of caries, real-time evaluation of biofilm, and monitoring of tissue regeneration processes after surgical interventions. Additionally, RS plays a crucial role in orthodontics, prosthodontics, and periodontology by offering insights into changes in mineral content, collagen structure, and interactions at the material–tissue interface. Despite challenges such as signal weakness, fluorescence interference, and cost, advances in RS technologies—including signal amplification methods and portable devices—are expanding its accessibility and clinical utility. Integration with artificial intelligence and multimodal imaging techniques further enhances the diagnostic potential of RS. This review outlines the current state of knowledge on RS in dentistry, discusses technological developments, and highlights its future clinical applications.

Introduction and objective: Breastfeeding, particularly in early infancy, plays a crucial role in child health. While its benefits are well documented, few studies have examined how maternal characteristics and sources of breastfeeding knowledge relate to long-term child health outcomes. The...

Life-threatening electrolyte abnormalities, such as sudden changes in serum potassium, cause or contribute to fatal cardiac consequences, including cardiac arrest. Here we present a case of a 57-year-old man with unrecognized hypokalaemia who experienced exercise-related out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA). Successful CPR was initiated immediately; however, he remained in a coma for four days. The patient had no other comorbidities except a history of mild hypertension treated with low doses of angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) combined with thiazide. On admission: sinus heart rhythm 80 bpm, potassium level 2.8 mmol/l, Glasgow Coma Scale 3, blood pressure normal. Coronary angiography did not show any coronary occlusion. Other additional tests were nonspecific. Upon awakening, he had major confusion with severe memory deficits. A week later, he was able to walk and was discharged from the hospital. Seventeen months later, the patient still struggles with severe cognitive impairment, lack of motivation, muscle weakness, and fatigue. He requires special care, including supervision and help with activities of daily living. Although the exact cause of hypokalaemia remained unrecognized, several probable mechanisms were taken into consideration.

Background: Vitamin D deficiency remains a widespread public health issue in Europe, despite the availability of sunlight, dietary sources, supplements, and food fortification. National fortification strategies differ substantially in their regulatory approaches, food vehicles, and fortification levels, influencing the population’s vitamin D intake and status. Objective: The primary objective of this study was to map vitamin D food fortification policies across European Union (EU) Member States, European Free Trade Association (EFTA) countries, and the United Kingdom (UK), focusing on regulatory frameworks, eligible food categories, and implementation models. Methods: A structured review of national legislation and official guidance on vitamin D food fortification was conducted between December 2025 and March 2026 across EU Member States (n = 27), EFTA countries (n = 4), and the UK. For EU Member States, the framework established by Regulation (EC) No 1925/2006 was examined alongside national implementation measures. For EFTA countries and the UK, corresponding national legislation and official regulatory guidance were reviewed. Data were extracted on fortification policy status, eligible food categories, legal basis, and fortification levels. Targeted searches of PubMed and Scopus were performed to identify modeling studies and policy analyses supporting the interpretation of the findings. Results: Fortification policies show marked heterogeneity. Mandatory fortification is limited to a few countries and specific foods: Finland (homogenized skim milk), Sweden (low-fat milk, fermented dairy, plant-based alternatives, and fat spreads), Belgium (margarine and selected fats), and Poland (margarine and fat spreads). In most other European countries, vitamin D fortification is voluntary under EU legislation or equivalent national legislation, depending on market uptake. Food vehicles vary regionally, with Northern Europe extending fortification beyond fats to include fluid milk and plant-based drinks, whereas other regions mainly fortify margarines, cereals, dairy products, and plant-based beverages. Fortification levels also differ, with some countries specifying maximal or exact levels, while others lack national standards. Data on fortified foods are limited in several Central and Southern European countries. Modeling indicates that multi-vehicle fortification is more effective than single-vehicle approaches, safely increasing population intakes while reducing deficiency prevalence. Conclusions: Vitamin D fortification policies across Europe are highly heterogeneous. Most countries rely on voluntary approaches, which provide limited coverage. Strengthening policy through mandatory and well-coordinated multi-vehicle strategies, informed by modeling and population-based studies, can improve vitamin D intake, reduce deficiency prevalence, and enhance health equity.

Introduction: Stroke is one of the leading causes of death and long-term disability worldwide, with a growing number of survivors living with cognitive impairment. Aerobic exercise is recognised as a promising non-pharmacological intervention supporting neuroplasticity and functional recovery after stroke. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays a key role in activity-dependent plasticity and has been proposed as a potential biomarker of rehabilitation success; however, clinical evidence regarding exercise-induced changes in BDNF remains inconsistent. Aim: This clinical narrative review summarises clinical studies evaluating the effects of structured aerobic training on circulating BDNF levels and cognitive outcomes in stroke survivors. Materials and methods: A literature search identified five eligible clinical trials. Results: Across these studies, aerobic exercise interventions consistently improved cognitive performance or related functional outcomes. Moderate-intensity aerobic training, corresponding to approximately 50–60% of heart rate reserve, was associated with the most consistent cognitive benefits. In contrast, high-intensity exercise protocols were linked to increases in circulating BDNF concentrations but did not demonstrate clearly superior cognitive outcomes compared with moderate-intensity training. Chronic BDNF responses to aerobic training were heterogeneous. One study reported an increase in resting BDNF levels, two studies observed no significant change, one study reported a decrease, and one study demonstrated BDNF increases only following high-intensity interval training. In most trials, changes in circulating BDNF were not associated with improvements in cognitive or clinical outcomes. Conclusions: These findings indicate that aerobic exercise is an effective component of post-stroke rehabilitation aimed at improving cognitive function. However, resting circulating BDNF shows substantial variability and does not consistently reflect cognitive recovery, suggesting that BDNF alone is not a reliable long-term biomarker of exercise-induced cognitive improvement after stroke. Moderate-intensity aerobic training remains the most practical and clinically beneficial strategy.