Emerging tolerance of Schistosoma mansoni to praziquantel, the only drug available for schistosomiasis treatment, highlights the need for new therapeutic targets. Snake venoms contain pharmacologically active proteins and peptides that can decrease the viability of S. mansoni worms in vitro. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play important roles in S. mansoni and are promising new therapeutic targets. However, new candidates still need to be identified, as only four S. mansoni lncRNAs have been functionally characterized to date. Therefore, we investigated lncRNA expression changes in S. mansoni following incubation with Bothrops venoms. Adult worms were incubated with eight venoms at a sublethal dose, and phenotypic parameters were evaluated. RNA-Seq was conducted on worms incubated with Bothrops jararacussu or Bothrops moojeni venoms, followed by Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis for each sex. B. moojeni venom reduced all phenotypic measurements, while B. jararacussu reduced oviposition. Both venoms altered global gene expression, including lncRNAs. Females showed two lncRNA hub genes in two venom-associated co-expression modules, while males showed 61 lncRNA hub genes in nine venom-associated modules. RT-qPCR validated six out of seven selected hub lncRNAs in male worms. These results reveal the involvement of lncRNAs in S. mansoni gene expression modulation induced by Bothrops venoms and point to lncRNAs that should be prioritized in future functional studies, such as SmLINC121220-IBu, SmLINC152105-IBu and SmLNCA123831-IBu.

Amphibians face threats from emerging bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens, and their innate immune response plays a key role in early defense. The liver is a central immune organ that produces acute-phase proteins (APPs) and complement system proteins, which are essential for early pathogen neutralization and a positive disease outcome. Here, we investigated the temporal dynamics of hepatic gene expression for APPs [C-reactive protein (CRP), serum amyloid A (SAA), fibrinogen-like protein 1 (FGL1)] and complement components (C1s, C3, C4, C5, C9) in Rhinella diptycha toads injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or saline. Using RT-qPCR at four time points post-injection (1h, 3h, 6h, and 18h), we detected a significant effect of LPS on C1s expression and a treatment x time interaction for C4, C5, and C9, indicating time-dependent activation of different complement proteins. In contrast, we found no evidence for LPS-induced changes in APPs expression. However, several APPs were positively correlated with complement components, suggesting coordinated regulation even in the absence of differential expression. Our findings provide a temporal analysis of hepatic acute-phase responses to LPS in Rhinella diptycha toads, unraveling a complex network of complement system activation. By showing that complement components, rather than APPs, dominate the early hepatic response to a bacterial antigen in a widespread Neotropical toad species, our study provides a temporal and mechanistic baseline for future investigations of amphibian innate immunity and underscores the need for future work to determine how these early pathways respond to different pathogens and contribute to variation in disease outcomes among amphibians.

Amphibians face threats from emerging bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens, and their innate immune response plays a key role in early defense. The liver is a central immune organ that produces acute-phase proteins (APPs) and complement system proteins, which are essential for early pathogen neutralization and a positive disease outcome. Here, we investigated the temporal dynamics of hepatic gene expression for APPs [C-reactive protein (CRP), serum amyloid A (SAA), fibrinogen-like protein 1 (FGL1)] and complement components (C1s, C3, C4, C5, C9) in Rhinella diptycha toads injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or saline. Using RT-qPCR at four time points post-injection (1h, 3h, 6h, and 18h), we detected a significant effect of LPS on C1s expression and a treatment × time interaction for C4, C5, and C9, indicating time-dependent activation of different complement proteins. In contrast, we found no evidence for LPS-induced changes in APPs expression. However, several APPs were positively correlated with complement components, suggesting coordinated regulation even in the absence of differential expression. Our findings provide a temporal analysis of hepatic acute-phase responses to LPS in Rhinella diptycha toads, unraveling a complex network of complement system activation. By showing that complement components, rather than APPs, dominate the early hepatic response to a bacterial antigen in a widespread Neotropical toad species, our study provides a temporal and mechanistic baseline for future investigations of amphibian innate immunity and underscores the need for future work to determine how these early pathways respond to different pathogens and contribute to variation in disease outcomes among amphibians.