Objectives: This study investigated the interplay between pre- and post-match physiological responses and subsequent emotional changes in male water polo players competing in the Italian Serie C league (third national level, sub-elite), focusing on differences between official championship (competitive) and non-competitive (training) settings. Methods: Sixteen male Italian Serie C water polo players participated. Salivary biomarkers (cortisol, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and uric acid) were measured, alongside psychological assessments of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence. Measurements were taken before and after both training and competition matches. Results: A significant anticipatory rise in salivary cortisol was observed before competition matches compared to training, highlighting the psychological stress associated with competitive events. Post-match, cortisol levels remained elevated to a greater extent after competition. Salivary IgA levels decreased significantly following both training and competition, with a more pronounced reduction after official matches, and exhibited a negative correlation with cortisol. Salivary uric acid, a marker of oxidative stress, increased post-exercise and was significantly higher after competition. Players reported higher somatic and cognitive anxiety and lower self-confidence before competition compared to training, and pre-competition cortisol levels were positively correlated with both anxiety measures and negatively correlated with self-confidence. Conclusions: These findings highlight the distinct physiological and psychological responses elicited by competitive versus non-competitive settings in water polo, emphasizing the importance of considering the emotional context when monitoring athletes’ stress and recovery. The social meaning of competitive contexts may be embodied, impacting stress and immune responses.

Objectives: This study investigated the interplay between pre- and post-match physiological responses and subsequent emotional changes in elite male water polo players, focusing on differences between official championship (competitive) and non-competitive (training) settings. Methods: Sixteen male Italian Serie C water polo players participated. Salivary biomarkers (cortisol, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and uric acid) were measured, alongside psychological assessments of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence. Measurements were taken before and after both training and competition matches. Results: A significant anticipatory rise in salivary cortisol was observed before competition matches compared to training, highlighting the psychological stress associated with competitive events. Post-match, cortisol levels remained elevated to a greater extent after competition. Salivary IgA levels decreased significantly following both training and competition, with a more pronounced reduction after official matches, and exhibited a negative correlation with cortisol. Salivary uric acid, a marker of oxidative stress, increased post-exercise and was significantly higher after competition. Players reported higher somatic and cognitive anxiety and lower self-confidence before competition compared to training, and pre-competition cortisol levels were positively correlated with both anxiety measures and negatively correlated with self-confidence. Conclusions: These findings highlight the distinct physiological and psychological responses elicited by competitive versus non-competitive settings in water polo, emphasizing the importance of considering the emotional context when monitoring athletes' stress and recovery. The social meaning of competitive contexts may be embodied, impacting stress and immune responses.

Background: Competitive sports represent a powerful physiological and psychological stressor capable of modulating neuroendocrine and immune pathways. Water polo, characterized by intense intermittent exertion and frequent physical contact, provides a unique model to investigate competition-related stress biology. Methods: Sixteen male Italian Serie C water polo players were enrolled in the study. Using a within-subject design, saliva samples were collected under controlled circadian conditions. Salivary biomarkers, including cortisol, IgA, and cytokines, were assessed both before and after training sessions and competitive matches. Results: Both training and competition elicited POST-session increases in salivary cortisol and cytokines, alongside reductions in IgA. However, competition produced significantly higher anticipatory and POST-session cortisol concentrations. A larger POST-session decreases in IgA compared with training was observed. Cytokine concentrations increased from PRE- to POST-session in both conditions, with significantly greater induction during competition across the panel. During training, selected cytokines showed positive within-session correlations with cortisol, indicating coordinated hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal–immune activation under lower psychosocial load. These associations were attenuated and less consistent during competition. Conclusions: Official competition amplifies endocrine and immune responses beyond those observed during match-like training in elite water polo players, despite comparable physical demands. Altered cytokine–cortisol coupling under competitive conditions suggests modulation of neuroendocrine–immune integration by psychosocial stress. Combined salivary profiling of cortisol, cytokines, and IgA represents a feasible, non-invasive approach for monitoring psychophysiological load in elite aquatic team sports.