The Cell Formation Problem plays a fundamental role in cellular manufacturing due to its impact on efficiency, flexibility, and reliability. Its complexity increases under real-world conditions involving alternative process routes and machine reliability constraints, leading to the Generalized Cell Formation Problem with machine reliability. Researchers have classified the Cell Formation Problem as an NP-Hard problem. To address this computational complexity, this study presents a comparative and hybrid evaluation of the Black Widow Optimizer and the Golden Eagle Optimizer for the Generalized Cell Formation Problem with machine reliability, examining whether mechanisms derived from the Black Widow Optimizer can enhance the search behavior of the Golden Eagle Optimizer. The Black Widow Optimizer provides strong intensification through procreation, cannibalism, and mutation mechanisms, whereas the Golden Eagle Optimizer provides a balanced search process through its cruise and attack strategies. Experimental results show that the Black Widow Optimizer achieved better individual performance than the Golden Eagle Optimizer, with average RPD values of 0.855% and 1.068%, respectively. However, the hybrid strategy based on incorporating the mutation mechanism into the Golden Eagle Optimizer produced the best result, reaching an RPD of 0.592%. The study also employed the Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney statistical test to validate the performance differences among algorithms, and the respective Big-O computational complexity was calculated. These findings highlight the potential of hybrid metaheuristics for designing robust and efficient manufacturing systems.

This research investigates the design and manufacture of non-pneumatic tires (NPTs) utilizing additive manufacturing (AM) techniques for human-powered vehicles (HPVs) operating in challenging terrains, such as those encountered during competitions like NASA's Human Exploration Rover Challenge (NASA HERC). Traditional pneumatic tires are often susceptible tot punctures and require extensive maintenance, making them less effective in these demanding environments. In contrast, NPTs provide enhanced puncture resistance and significantly lower maintenance needs, yet their design poses complex challenges concerning load-carrying capacity, traction, and durability. This study leverages the advantages of AM to tackle these challenges, allowing for the creation of intricate geometries and internal structures that can be optimized for specific terrains. Additionally, the research emphasizes the use of flexible materials, particularly thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), and thoroughly evaluates the influence of various AM processes on the mechanical properties and performance of NPTs. Through rigorous experimental and field-specific testing, our goal is to refine NPT designs, ensuring they meet demanding performance criteria while promoting sustainable manufacturing practices, ultimately contributing to advancements in HPV technology.