Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach to help agricultural systems worldwide, concurrently addressing three challenge areas: increased adaptation to climate change, mitigation of climate change, and ensuring global food security – through innovative policies, practices, and financing. It involves a set of objectives and multiple transformative transitions for which there are newly identified knowledge gaps. We address these questions raised by CSA within three areas: conceptualization, implementation, and implications for policy and decision-makers. We also draw up scenarios on the future of the CSA concept in relation to the 4 per 1000 Initiative (Soils for Food Security and Climate) launched at UNFCCC 21st Conference of the Parties (COP 21). Our analysis shows that there is still a need for further interdisciplinary research on the theoretical foundation of the CSA concept and on the necessary transformations of agriculture and land use systems. Contrasting views about implementation indicate that CSA focus on the “triple win” (adaptation, mitigation, food security) needs to be assessed in terms of science-based practices. CSA policy tools need to incorporate an integrated set of measures supported by reliable metrics. Environmental and social safeguards are necessary to make sure that CSA initiatives conform to the principles of sustainability, both at the agriculture and food system levels.

Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) are critical biodiversity areas for the conservation and sustainable use of biological and cultural resources while promoting regional peace, cooperation, and socio-economic development. Sustainable management of TFCAs is dependent on the availability of an eco-agriculture framework that promotes integrated management of conservation mosaics in terms of food production, environmental protection or the conservation of natural resources, and improved human livelihoods. As a developmental framework, eco-agriculture is significantly influenced by existing legal and governance structures at all levels; this study assessed the impact of existing legal and governance frameworks on eco-agriculture implementation in the Lubombo TFCA that cuts across the borders between Mozambique, Eswatini, and South Africa. The assessment used a mixed research method, including a document review, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. Although the three countries have no eco-agriculture policies, biodiversity practices are directly or indirectly affected by some policies related to environmental protection, agriculture improvement, and rural development. The assessment found that South Africa has the most comprehensive policies related to eco-agriculture; Mozambican policies mainly focus on equity and involvement of disadvantaged social groups, while Eswatini is conspicuous for explicitly making it the responsibility of each citizen to protect and safeguard the environment. The protection of conservation areas is critical to preserving natural habitats and ensuring the continued provision of ecosystem services. The lack of transboundary governance structures results in the Lubombo TFCA existing as a treaty on paper, as there are no clear processes for transboundary cooperation and collaboration.

L'agriculture intelligente face au climat (climate-smart agriculture – CSA) a comme objectifs d'être adaptée au changement climatique et de l'atténuer, tout en contribuant de manière durable à la sécurité alimentaire. Né en 2010 à l'initiative de la FAO, le concept a fait école et se décline désormais en diverses pratiques qui prennent en compte ces objectifs de manière différente. Les pratiques agroécologiques de couverture permanente du sol, par des arbres ou des cultures, sont parmi les plus courantes. Mais la CSA prétend aussi être une approche plus large permettant de répondre aux enjeux du changement climatique par des politiques publiques et des financements innovants. Défini par des objectifs et non pas par les moyens d'atteindre ces objectifs, le concept de CSA pose aussi question, notamment sur la possibilité d'assurer simultanément ses trois objectifs et sur le risque d'encourager un productivisme déguisé qui ne respecterait ni l'environnement ni les agriculteurs. L'initiative « 4 ‰, les sols pour la sécurité alimentaire et le climat » reprend les objectifs de la CSA en insistant sur l'atténuation du changement climatique par l'augmentation de la teneur en carbone du sol. Tout en étant un concept qui demande encore à faire ses preuves, la CSA est une approche de l'agriculture originale et compatible avec les enjeux du changement climatique. The objectives of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) are to be adapted to climate change and mitigate it, while sustainably contributing to food security. The concept emerged in 2010 at FAO and has now become popular. Different CSA practices can be found today and integrate its objectives differently. Agroecological practices aiming for a permanent soil cover, either with trees or crops, are among the most common CSA practices. CSA is also a wider approach allowing taking into account the challenge of climate change with innovative public policies and financing. Because it is defined by its objectives and not by the means to reach those objectives, the concept of CSA has also been questioned, especially regarding the possibility to reach its three objectives simultaneously and because of the risks to promote disguised productivism that would not respect the environment or the farmers. The 4‰ initiative « Soils for Food Security and Climate » takes up the objectives of CSA and emphasizes the mitigation of climate change by increasing the carbon content of the soil. While the CSA concept has yet to prove itself, it is an innovative, climate-friendly approach to agriculture that is compatible with the challenges of climate change.

The integration of agriculture and biodiversity has become an acknowledged solution to concurrently address the development of sustainable food production systems and the preservation of natural resources. However, there are few alternative farming systems combining agricultural commodities with ecosystem services. We examined the farm and landscape dynamics of an area in South Africa which has been isolated from mainstream agriculture for several decades. We used a time series of aerial photographs as well as farm surveys and interviews to analyze how historical and present trends can explain land use features. Results show that today's landscape is the consequence of dramatic socioeconomic transformations that have turned original transhumant livestock keepers into sedentary farmers. Although poverty is widespread, we found a well-balanced landscape with a regularly increasing tree cover and a high biodiversity potential. Beyond farm and household size, the main landscape impact factors are herd size and management as well as soil fertility management practices, including fallowing. We show that these conditions represent a good potential toward a multifunctional landscape, provided the relationships between farmers' practices and biodiversity are better formalized and there are tangible benefits for farmers to opt for this approach.