Rare ginsenoside compound K (CK) is an intestinal microbial metabolite with a low natural abundance that is primarily produced by physicochemical processing, side chain modification, or metabolic transformation in the gut. Moreover, CK exhibits potent biological activity compared to primary ginsenosides, which has raised concerns in the field of ginseng research and development, as well as ginsenoside-related dietary supplements and natural products. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, and Rc are generally used as a substrate to generate CK via several bioconversion processes. Current research shows that CK has a wide range of pharmacological actions, including boosting osteogenesis, lipid and glucose metabolism, lipid oxidation, insulin resistance, and anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptosis properties. Further research on the bioavailability and toxicology of CK can advance its medicinal application. The purpose of this review is to lay the groundwork for future clinical studies and the development of CK as a therapy for metabolic disorders. Furthermore, the toxicology and pharmacology of CK are investigated as well in this review. The findings indicate that CK primarily modulates signaling pathways associated with AMPK, SIRT1, PPARs, WNTs, and NF-kB. It also demonstrates a positive therapeutic effect of CK on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), obesity, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and its complications, as well as osteoporosis. Additionally, the analogues of CK showed more bioavailability, less toxicity, and more efficacy against disease states. Enhancing bioavailability and regulating hazardous variables are crucial for its use in clinical trials.

(1) Background: A large and diverse microbial population exists in the human intestinal tract, which supports gut homeostasis and the health of the host. Short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-secreting microbes also generate several metabolites with favorable regulatory effects on various malignancies and immunological inflammations. The involvement of intestinal SCFAs in kidney diseases, such as various kidney malignancies and inflammations, has emerged as a fascinating area of study in recent years. However, the mechanisms of SCFAs and other metabolites produced by SCFA-producing bacteria against kidney cancer and inflammation have not yet been investigated. (2) Methods: We considered 177 different SCFA-producing microbial species and 114 metabolites from the gutMgene database. Further, we used different online-based database platforms to predict 1890 gene targets associated with metabolites. Moreover, DisGeNET, OMIM, and Genecard databases were used to consider 13,104 disease-related gene targets. We used a Venn diagram and various protein−protein interactions (PPIs), KEGG pathways, and GO analyses for the functional analysis of gene targets. Moreover, the subnetwork of protein−protein interactions (through string and cytoscape platforms) was used to select the top 20% of gene targets through degree centrality, betweenness centrality, and closeness centrality. To screen the possible candidate compounds, we performed an analysis of the ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity) properties of metabolites and then found the best binding affinity using molecular docking simulation. (3) Results: Finally, we found the key gene targets that interact with suitable compounds and function against kidney cancer and inflammation, such as MTOR (with glycocholic acid), PIK3CA (with 11-methoxycurvularin, glycocholic acid, and isoquercitrin), IL6 (with isoquercitrin), PTGS2 (with isoquercitrin), and IGF1R (with 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b] pyridine, isoquercitrin), showed a lower binding affinity. (4) Conclusions: This study provides evidence to support the positive effects of SCFA-producing microbial metabolites that function against kidney cancer and inflammation and makes integrative research proposals that may be used to guide future studies.

Kidney cancer has emerged as a major medical problem in recent times. Multiple compounds are used to treat kidney cancer by triggering cancer-causing gene targets. For instance, isoquercitrin (quercetin-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside) is frequently present in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and foods and drinks made from plants. Our previous study predicted using protein-protein interaction (PPI) and molecular docking analysis that the isoquercitrin compound can control kidney cancer and inflammation by triggering potential gene targets of IGF1R, PIK3CA, IL6, and PTGS2. So, the present study is about further in silico and in vitro validation. We performed molecular dynamic (MD) simulation, gene ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis, cytotoxicity assay, and RT-PCR and qRT-PCR validation. According to the MD simulation (250 ns), we found that IGF1R, PIK3CA, and PTGS2, except for IL6 gene targets, show stable binding energy with a stable complex with isoquercitrin. We also performed gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses of the final targets to determine their regulatory functions and signaling pathways. Furthermore, we checked the cytotoxicity effect of isoquercitrin (IQ) and found that 5 μg/mL and 10 μg/mL doses showed higher cell viability in a normal kidney cell line (HEK 293) and also inversely showed an inhibition of cell growth at 35% and 45%, respectively, in the kidney cancer cell line (A498). Lastly, the RT-PCR and qRT-PCR findings showed a significant decrease in PTGS2, PIK3CA, and IGF1R gene expression, except for IL6 expression, following dose-dependent treatments with IQ. Thus, we can conclude that isoquercitrin inhibits the expression of PTGS2, PIK3CA, and IGF1R gene targets, which in turn controls kidney cancer and inflammation.

The PHLDA (pleckstrin homology-like domain family) gene family is popularly known as a potential biomarker for cancer identification, and members of the PHLDA family have become considered potentially viable targets for cancer treatments. The PHLDA gene family consists of PHLDA1, PHLDA2, and PHLDA3. The predictive significance of PHLDA genes in cancer remains unclear. To determine the role of pleckstrin as a prognostic biomarker in human cancers, we conducted a systematic multiomics investigation. Through various survival analyses, pleckstrin expression was evaluated, and their predictive significance in human tumors was discovered using a variety of online platforms. By analyzing the protein–protein interactions, we also chose a collection of well-known functional protein partners for pleckstrin. Investigations were also carried out on the relationship between pleckstrins and other cancers regarding mutations and copy number alterations. The cumulative impact of pleckstrin and their associated genes on various cancers, Gene Ontology (GO), and pathway analyses were used for their evaluation. Thus, the expression profiles of PHLDA family members and their prognosis in various cancers may be revealed by this study. During this multiomics analysis, we found that among the PHLDA family, PHLDA1 may be a therapeutic target for several cancers, including kidney, colon, and brain cancer, while PHLDA2 can be a therapeutic target for cancers of the colon, esophagus, and pancreas. Additionally, PHLDA3 may be a useful therapeutic target for ovarian, renal, and gastric cancer.

Rare ginsenoside compound K (CK), is an intestinal microbial metabolite with a low natural abundance that is primarily produced by physicochemical processing, side chain modification, or metabolic transformation in the gut. Moreover, CK exhibits potent biological activity compared to primary ginsenosides, which has raised concerns in the field of ginseng research and development as well as ginsenosides-related dietary supplements and natural products. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, and Rc are generally used as a substrate to generate CK via several bio-conversion processes. Current research shows that CK has a wide range of pharmacological actions including boosting osteogenesis, lipid and glucose metabolism, lipid oxidation, insulin resistance, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptosis properties. Further research on the bioavailability and toxicology of CK can advance its medicinal application. The purpose of this review is to lay the groundwork for future clinical studies and the development of CK as a therapy for metabolic disorders. Furthermore, the toxicology and pharmacology of CK are investigated as well in this review. The findings indicate that CK primarily modulates signal-ing pathways associated with AMPK, SIRT1, PPARs, WNTs, and NF-kB. It also demonstrates a positive therapeutic effect of CK on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, obesity, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and its complications, as well as osteoporosis. Additionally, the analogues of CK showed more bioavailability, less toxicity, and more efficacy against disease states. Enhancing bioavailability and regulating hazardous variables are crucial for its use in clinical trials.