The transition toward low-carbon cement production requires alternative fuels with improved environmental performance and resource efficiency. Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF), produced from pre-treated non-recyclable waste streams, represents a promising alternative fuel; however, its heterogeneous and varying composition presents challenges for stable combustion and process optimization. In this study, a comprehensive physicochemical characterization of RDF was performed and compared with pet coke, a conventional, fossil cement kiln fuel. The analysis included manual sorting, particle size distribution, elemental characterization, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric and differential scanning calorimetry (TGA/DSC), and Higher Heating Value (HHV) determination. The RDF sample exhibited a heterogeneous polymeric-mineral composition dominated by plastics, paper, textiles, and inorganic fractions. TGA revealed a broad multi-stage thermal degradation profile, while calorimetry indicated HHV of 19.2 ± 0.3 MJ/kg and ash content of 11.6 wt.%, compared with 34.57 ± 0.11 MJ/kg and 1.97 wt.% for pet coke, respectively. SEM/EDS and XRD analyses confirmed the coexistence of polymeric and mineral phases in RDF, whereas pet coke exhibited a predominantly carbonaceous and homogeneous composition. The generated dataset supports computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-based cement kiln combustion models and RDF utilization for fossil fuel substitution in the cement industry.

The cell formation process is essential for electrochemical activation and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) development, but it remains the most cost-inefficient stage in battery manufacturing. A better understanding of SEI formation and fast formation limitations is critical to reducing production costs. However, studies on formation protocols for novel electrode chemistries are limited. This work focuses on comparing various cell formation protocols, evaluated in aqueous processing NMC622||Gr full cells at both laboratory and pilot scales. Over 20 protocols were first tested in coin cells via electrochemical analysis. The most promising protocols were then scaled up to 1.066 Ah pouch cells for validation. To interpret the results, further analysis was conducted using three-electrode setups and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Fast formation protocols were also evaluated to assess their limits. Results showed negligible differences among slow formation protocols, likely due to the absence of lithium plating and the low contribution of the negative electrode in impedance spectra. However, fast formation of 2 cycles at 2 C induced lithium plating and significantly degraded cell performance. These findings indicate that slow formation protocols can be safely accelerated, provided lithium plating is avoided, offering a path toward more cost-effective manufacturing without sacrificing cell quality.