Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease characterized by synovial inflammation, cartilage degradation, and subchondral bone remodeling. Synovial macrophages, particularly their polarization into pro-inflammatory M1 or anti-inflammatory M2 phenotypes, play a pivotal role in OA pathogenesis. M1 macrophages drive synovitis, oxidative stress, and cartilage catabolism by secreting cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α) and matrix-degrading enzymes (MMPs, ADAMTS-5), while M2 macrophages promote tissue repair via TGF-β and IL-10. Emerging therapeutic strategies, such as macrophage depletion, mTOR/SIRT1 modulation, and M2 polarization, demonstrate potential in rebalancing the M1/M2 ratio to attenuate OA progression. However, translating these macrophage-targeted strategies into clinical practice remains challenging due to difficulties in achieving subtype-specific targeting, avoiding off-target immune effects, and ensuring consistent therapeutic efficacy across patient populations. However, challenges remain in achieving subtype-specific targeting and translating preclinical findings to clinical applications. This review summarizes current knowledge and provides valuable insights for advancing OA management strategies, underscoring macrophages as promising therapeutic targets in osteoarthritis.

Nanomaterials are redefining the landscape of gene and genome editing, yet their translation to clinical reality remains constrained by multiple unresolved

Nanocomposites based on inorganic/graphene nanoparticles have gained remarkable interest as a novel class of hybrid materials. Scientific community attention towards these substances has been increasing, because of their peculiar characteristics in combining anticipated features of building constructs for specified applications. Graphene oxide (GO) and metal nanoparticles (MNPs) are using separately in different applications due to their specific limitations. Researchers continue to explore ways to overcome these challenges and create functional nanomaterials for various fields by combining unique advantages of GO and MNPs. Here, we used a facile one-step method for the synthesis of reduced graphene oxide–palladium composite (RGO/Pd). Environmental-friendly biofabricated palladium nanoparticles adhered to Polyscias scutellaria (PS) leaf extract mediated RGO/Pd have been presented in the current investigation. The biofabricated nanohybrid (RGO/Pd) was analysed utilizing several microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. Further, we have also examined the catalytic function for the reduction of 2-nitroaniline (2-NA) in detail. Primarily, we observed that the synthesized nanocomposite can catalyse simultaneous reduction of 2-NA. Furthermore, an added advantage of the as prepared RGO/Pd nanocomposite is its antimicrobial and antifungal ability. Further, we exhibited that the mesenchymal stem cells of adult goat were viable in the presence of RGO/Pd of 0.1 mg/mL concentration and their properties of stem cells were retained. The outcomes displayed that the nanocomposites exhibited outstanding functioning in the killing of dangerous microbial and fungal pathogens. All these results strengthen the RGO/Pd composite applicability in future for potential therapy in bone tissue engineering applications.

Osteosarcoma, the most prevalent primary malignant bone tumor in children and adolescents, remains a formidable clinical challenge due to its high metastatic potential and limited therapeutic progress over the past three decades. While surgery combined with multi-agent chemotherapy has improved outcomes for patients with localized disease, prognosis for those with recurrent or metastatic osteosarcoma remains poor. Although immunotherapy has revolutionized cancer care across multiple malignancies, its efficacy in osteosarcoma has been modest, largely owing to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, functional T cell exhaustion, and pronounced antigenic heterogeneity. Recent advances in T cell–based strategies, including MHC-independent γδ T cells, immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting PD−1/PD−L1 and CTLA−4, and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells directed against antigens such as HER2, GD2, and B7−H3, have demonstrated encouraging preclinical activity but limited clinical translation. Emerging evidence suggests that impaired antigen presentation, suppressive immune cell populations, and inadequate T cell trafficking collectively restrict therapeutic efficacy. This review summarizes recent mechanistic and translational advances in T cell–directed immunotherapy for osteosarcoma and proposes future directions to improve clinical outcomes.

Selective autophagy is a critical cellular process in eukaryotic cells, characterized by the targeted degradation of specific organelles and proteins. This