Consumer preferences for food products serve as a fundamental factor that influences purchasing and utilization decisions. Consumer preferences for infant formula (IF) are predominantly determined by its aroma characteristics. This study examined the volatile flavor compounds (VOC), aroma characteristics of IF detected via GC-ion mobility spectrometry (IMS), quantitative descriptive analysis, and consumer testing, respectively, hoping to provide a novel perspective for enterprise quality control. The results indicate that GC-IMS can be used for the rapid analysis of VOC in IF. Correlation analyses between consumer preferences and sensory profiles revealed that overall liking (OL) displayed a significant positive association with milky and creamy flavors, and a highly negative correlation with fishy and oxidation aromas. Of the 4 key sensory profiles, fishy and creamy flavors had a notably stronger effect on OL than oxidation and milky aromas. The results of the 2-way orthogonal partial least squares analyses indicated that acetoin (B6), (Z)-4-heptenal (A12), β-pinene (G1), o-xylene (G6), 3-octanone (B9), 1-hexanal (A7), 2-methylpropanol (C6), nonanal (A2), and 2-methyl butanal (A4) could be used to predict the sensory intensity associated with IF, and consequently consumer preference. This study aimed to provide a foundational data source for IF quality control and consumer preference maintenance, as well as a stable, rapid aroma analysis process for IF-related products.

Background: Human breast milk (HBM), as the initial food for humans, is quite essential for infant development and also for health throughout the lifespan. Exosomes are bioactive components in HBM, yet their nutritional role remains poorly recognized. Objectives: This study investigates how HBM exosomes change with lactation and their potential role in infant growth and development. Methods: HBM samples were obtained at 2 and 6 months postpartum from a well-established birth cohort. Purified exosomes were detected using transcriptomic, lipidomic, and proteomic approaches. Then, multi-omics data were analyzed to compare differentially expressed miRNAs, lipids, and proteins along with different lactation periods and their association with the infant growth process. Results: Compared with the 2-month postpartum group, the expression levels of miR-214-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-126-3p, miR-127-5p, miR-144-3p, and miR-4787-5p were down-regulated in the 6-month postpartum group. In addition, 190 lipids and 269 proteins were up-regulated in the 6-month postpartum group, whereas 15 lipids and 244 proteins were down-regulated. Enrichment analysis revealed that the predicted target genes of differentially expressed miRNAs were primarily involved in cell communication and axon guidance. In parallel, the differentially expressed proteins were enriched in biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids and fatty acid metabolism pathway, implying a potential role in adipogenesis and neurodevelopment. Conclusions: This study reveals that the cargo contents of HBM exosomes change with the lactation period and may adapt to the needs of infant growth and development, particularly adipogenesis and neurodevelopment. HBM exosomes may play an important role in transferring genetic information from mothers to infants and be related to infants’ development. The underlying mechanisms warrant further investigation and validation.

Various Maillard reaction products (MRPs) are formed in infant formula during thermal processing and storage. However, safety assessments are often based on individual compounds, which may not adequately reflect the potential risks associated with exposure to multiple coexisting components in real food products. Therefore, this study used GC–MS to screen for typical MRPs in infant formula. Based on the detection results, glyoxal, 2-acetylfuran, 2-furfural, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) were selected to establish a mixed-exposure system. Subsequently, using zebrafish as a model, we systematically evaluated the toxic effects of two mixture concentrations, 1/9 maximum non-lethal concentration (MNLC) and 1/3 MNLC, on the immune system, nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and liver. The results showed that these four MRPs coexisted in infant formula and that combined exposure induced significant biological damage even at low doses. Both mixture concentrations significantly reduced neutrophil and macrophage levels and promoted apoptosis in central nervous system cells. The higher-concentration mixture further reduced T-cell counts, suppressed motor neuron development, and decreased locomotor activity during the light phase. In addition, the higher-concentration mixture decreased the gastrointestinal area, increased the liver area, delayed yolk sac absorption, and caused marked histopathological damage. Compared with single-compound exposure, combined exposure exerted more pronounced effects on immune- and neuro-related endpoints, suggesting synergistic interactions among different MRPs and identifying the immune and nervous systems as the more sensitive targets of toxicity. In summary, mixed exposure to typical MRPs in infant formula may pose a greater biological risk than that predicted by evaluations based on individual components alone. This study provides experimental evidence for identifying combined toxicity and improving the safety risk assessment of MRPs in thermally processed infant foods.