Obesity is a pervasive global health challenge that substantially reduces the quality of life of millions of individuals and impedes social and economic advancement. Obesity is an independent risk factor that contributes to a range of chronic non‑communicable metabolic diseases, significantly affecting energy metabolism, mental health, cancer susceptibility, sleep quality, and other physiological processes. The PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, a significant glucose, lipid, and protein metabolism regulator, is integral to cellular growth, survival, and apoptosis. Apoptosis is a highly regulated form of programmed cell death that is critical for immune cell maturation and tissue repair. The present review examines the association between obesity, the PI3K/AKT pathway, and mitochondrial apoptosis to elucidate the potential mechanisms by which obesity may activate apoptotic pathways. These findings provide a theoretical foundation for mitigating obesity‑related complications by targeting these critical pathways.

The global incidence of thyroid cancer (TC) has been steadily increasing and is now recognized as one of the most prevalent endocrine malignancies. This study provides a comprehensive evaluation of the prevalence, incidence, mortality, and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) associated with TC from 1990 to 2021. Data for this study were sourced from the 2021 Global Burden of Disease, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD). To quantify temporal patterns and assess trends in age-standardized TC metrics—namely, age-standardized prevalence rate (ASPR), age-standardized incidence rate (ASIR), age-standardized death rate (ASDR), and DALYs—estimated annual percentage changes (EAPCs) were calculated. The analysis was stratified by sex, 20 age groups, 21 GBD regions, 204 countries/territories, and five Socio-demographic Index (SDI) quintiles. Statistical analyses and plotting were conducted using R statistical software version 4.4.2 and Joinpoint software. The study found that the global burden of thyroid cancer remains substantial, with a significant increase in the total number of cases. In 2021, regions with high SDI reported the highest ASPR, showing an upward trend compared to 1990; however, this trend began to decline significantly after 2009. Conversely, regions with low and low-middle SDI exhibited noticeable increases in ASPR, ASIR, ASDR, and DALYs. The highest prevalence and incidence were observed in the 55-59 age group, followed by a gradual decline. The majority of affected individuals were women. A high body mass index (BMI) was identified as the primary risk factor for TC, and both prevalence and incidence are expected to continue rising through 2040.

The elevated global prevalence of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has led to a dramatic increase in patients with insulin resistance. The majority of insulin resistance is closely associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome, resulting in impaired insulin signaling pathways. type 2 diabetes can be preceded by insulin resistance, and therefore, it is crucial to stop the progression of insulin resistance to type 2 diabetes. Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) holds a bright future in the therapeutic study of insulin resistance; it is involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism and immune homeostasis while ameliorating the impaired insulin signaling pathway, improving the state of insulin resistance through multiple aspects. In this review, we describe the physiological properties and signaling pathways of FGF21 and elaborate on the mechanism of action of FGF21 in improving insulin resistance. Finally, the progress of FGF21 analog research is summarized in the context of the treatment of insulin resistance.

Thyroid cancer is the most common malignancy of the endocrine system, and its incidence has been increasing in recent years. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has shown unique advantages in supporting the treatment and management of thyroid cancer. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current literature on TCM-related interventions for thyroid cancer, covering theoretical foundations, epidemiological features, pathophysiological mechanisms, diagnostic applications, clinical practices, technological progress, and existing challenges to summarize the clinical effectiveness of TCM, clarify its role in integrated treatment strategies, and outline future directions for research and clinical application.

Objective: This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Qingre Lishi decoction (QRLSD) for type 2 diabetes (T2D), thereby providing new evidence-based insights into the role of traditional Chinese medicine in treating T2D.Methods: WanFang, Embase, Web of Science, PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and the Cochrane Library were searched up to January 2025. Studies assessing the efficacy and safety of QRLSD in treating T2D were included. Data were pooled using standardized mean difference (SMD) and risk ratio (RR). Sensitivity and subgroup analyses were performed to assess the stability of the results and investigate potential sources of heterogeneity. Statistical analyses were conducted using RevMan 5.4 and Stata 18.0.Results: A total of 18 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were included. Our results showed that QRLSD reduced the levels of fasting blood glucose (SMD: -15.09; 95% CI: [-18.27, -11.90], I² = 99%, P < 0.00001), 2-hour postprandial blood glucose (SMD: -17.71; 95% CI: [-21.70, -13.71], I² = 98%, P < 0.00001), glycated hemoglobin (SMD: -18.93; 95% CI: [-22.77, -15.09], I² = 98%, P < 0.00001), as well as other metabolic parameters, indicators of insulin resistance, and body mass index. No significant difference in the incidence of adverse events between the intervention and control groups was found (RR: 1.8; 95% CI: [0.57, 5.68], I² = 9%, P=0.32).Conclusion: For T2D, QRLSD can significantly improve clinical outcomes and may serve as a more effective therapy than single Western medicine therapy. Moreover, it was not related to significant adverse events. Given the inherent limitations of this study, large-scale, multicenter international RCTs are needed to further validate these findings in the future.Systematic review registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/, identifier CRD420251000585.