Nutrition is one of the most important factors affecting pubertal development. Increasing demands for energy proteins and micronutrients are necessary to cope with the rapid linear pubertal growth and development, change in body composition, and increased physical activity. Adequate nutrition is a key permissive factor for the normal timing and tempo of pubertal development. Severe primary or secondary malnutrition also can adversely delay the onset and progression of puberty. The higher incidence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia in adolescents imposes a nutritional risk on pubertal development. Here we provide an overview of nutritional requirements (macronutrients and micronutrients) necessary to cope with these changes. In addition, we discuss possible nutritional interventions trials and their effects on several aspects of growth and development in undernourished and stunted adolescents, in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), who require nutritional rehabilitation. This mini-review sums up some important findings in this important complex that links between nutrition, nutritional interventions, and pubertal development.

The relationship between precocious or early puberty and its treatment has received significant research attention, yielding diverse outcomes. This short review aims to comprehensively analyze and summarize research articles to elucidate the potential link between precocious or early pubertal onset (CPP) and crucial health factors. We conducted a systematic review of studies published from -January 2000 to March 2023, sourced from databases of Medline, PubMed, Google Scholar and Web of Science. We assessed the relationship between CPP and final adult height (FHt), bone health, reproductive function, body mass index, metabolic and cardiovascular abnormalities, and increased cancer risk. Upon reviewing and analyzing selected studies, the following key findings emerged: (a) treating CPP in girls before age 6-7 and in boys before age 9 improves FHt; (b) bone mineral density (BMD) decreases during GnRHa treatment but normalizes afterward, with no lasting effects on peak bone mass during puberty; (c) GnRH treatment does not negatively affect menstrual cycles; however, untreated CPP increases the risk of premature or early-onset menopause; (d) the incidence of PCOS/hyperandrogenemia may be slightly elevated in women with a history of CPP, but overall reproductive function remains largely unaffected; (e) earlier thelarche and menarche may enhance susceptibility to breast carcinogenesis; (f) CPP contributes to an increased risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes in both genders; (g) early menarche may slightly increase the risk of coronary heart disease and ischemic strokes and (h) early pubertal timing increases the risk of depression and anxiety disorders. Monitoring and early diagnosis of these conditions are of paramount importance for successful management.

Patients with β-thalassemia major (BTM) had variable prevalence of undernutrition and abnormal body composition. We performed an electronic search in PubMed, Scopus, Research gate, and Web of Sciences to evaluate the prevalence of nutritional disorders in patients with BTM worldwide in relation to their body composition and possible etiological factors. In addition, we reviewed the published nutritional intervention studies. 22 studies on the prevalence of undernutrition (12 countries) and 23 nutritional intervention studies were analyzed. Undernutrition occurred in a considerable number of patients but varied greatly among different countries (from 5.2% to 70%). The lower middle income (LMI) countries (India, Pakistan, Iran, Egypt) had higher prevalence, while (high -middle and high income (Turkey, Greece, North America, USA, Canada) had lower prevalence. Even in patients with normal BMI, abnormalities of body composition are common with decreased muscle mass, lean-body mass, and bone mineral density. 65% to 75% of them had lower energy intake with low levels of circulating nutrients, minerals (zinc, selenium, and copper), and vitamins (D, E) versus controls. Increased macro and micronutrient requirements decreased absorption and /or increased loss or excretion are etiologic factors. Undernutrition was associated with short stature and lower quality of life (QOL). High prevalence of endocrinopathies, poor transfusion regimen (tissue hypoxia), improper chelation, and lack of maternal education, represented important risk factors in the production of poor growth in weight and stature. Timely detection of undernutrition in patients with BTM and proper nutritional intervention could prevent growth delay and comorbidities. (www.actabiomedica.it)

The conventional treatment of β-thalassemia (β-TM) patients is based on the correction of anemia through regular blood transfusions and iron chelation therapy. However, allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) remains the only currently available technique that has curative potential. Variable frequency and severity of long-term growth and endocrine changes after conventional treatment as well as after HSCT have been reported by different centers. The goal of this mini-review is to summarize and update knowledge about long-term growth and endocrine changes after HSCT in patients with β-TM in comparison to those occurring in β-TM patients on conventional treatment. Regular surveillance, early diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up in a multi-disciplinary specialized setting are suggested to optimize the patient's quality of life (www.actabiomedica.it).

Lipodystrophy (LH) is one of the most common complications of subcutaneous insulin injection. Many factors are incriminated in the evolution of LH in children with diabetes type 1 (T1DM). LH may affect insulin absorption in skin areas involved, resulting in negative impact on blood glucose levels and glycemic variability. We calculated evaluated the prevalence of LH in relation to possible clinical factors associated with the development of LH in a cohort of children (n =115) with T1DM using insulin pens or syringes and we studied possible predisposing factors including their age, duration of T1DM, injection technique, insulin dose/kg, degree of pain perception, and HbA_1c level. In our cross-sectional study, 84% of patients were using pens for insulin injection and 52.2 % of them were rotating the site of injection on daily basis. 27 % did not experience pain during injection while 6 % had the worst hurt. 49.5 % had clinically detectable LH. Those with LH had higher HbA_1c level and more unexplained hypoglycemic events compared to those without LH (P: 0.058). The hypertrophied site was related to the preferred site of injection which was the arms in 71.9 % of the cases. Children who had LH were older with longer duration of T1DM, rotating sites of injection less frequently and were more frequently reusing needles compared to children without LH (P: < 0.05). Improper insulin injection technique, older age, and longer duration of T1DM were associated with LH. Proper education of patients and their parents must include correct injection techniques, rotating injection sites, and minimal reuse of needles. (www.actabiomedica.it)

The purpose of this study is to systematically review human evidence linking placental hormones and IGF-1 with fetal growth, birth size, and early-life metabolic programming, and to identify disease-specific translational signals relevant to fetal growth restriction, metabolically complicated pregnancy, and extreme prematurity. A systematic review of PubMed and Scopus was performed for human studies published from January 2000 to March 2025. Eligible studies examined placental growth hormone, human placental lactogen, placental IGF-axis markers, or related stress-hormone pathways in relation to birth size, fetal or infant growth, or early metabolic outcomes. Reporting was aligned with PRISMA 2020. Risk of bias was assessed using RoB 2 for randomized trials and ROBINS-I principles for observational studies. Because of substantial clinical and methodological heterogeneity, findings were synthesized narratively. Thirty-seven included studies showed that mid-gestation placental growth hormone had the most consistent positive associations with fetal growth and birth size, whereas early placental growth hormone was less informative. Cord blood IGF-1 was the most reproducible endocrine correlate of birth length and weight. Reduced maternal or placental lactogen signals and lower placental 11β-HSD2 activity clustered with placental insufficiency and fetal growth restriction, while diabetic pregnancies showed a shift toward adiposity-related outcomes. In extreme prematurity, abrupt loss of placental endocrine support created a translational window in which rhIGF-1/rhIGFBP-3 replacement emerged as the clearest mechanism-based intervention, although current clinical evidence remains preliminary. Conclusion: Placental endocrine markers should not be used as standalone screening tools. Their main value at present is mechanistic and translational: combined hormone patterns may refine biological understanding and risk stratification within defined maternal and neonatal disease frameworks, while IGF-1 replacement in extreme prematurity represents the most credible current therapeutic lead. What is Known: • Placental hormones and IGF-1 are linked with fetal growth, birth size, and neonatal metabolic adaptation, but 45 published evidence is heterogeneous and clinically fragmented. What is New: • This systematic review organizes the human data within fetal growth restriction, diabetic/LGA pregnancy, and extreme prematurity frameworks and identifies translational signals—especially early IGF-1 replacement in extreme prematurity—rather than standalone diagnostic biomarkers. Graphical Abstract The alternative text for this image may have been generated using AI.