Precision agriculture is defined as a sophisticated and sustainable approach to soil management, optimizing resource use while minimizing environmental impact. A key challenge in this context is the estimation of soil organic carbon (SOC), a critical parameter for assessing soil health, fertility, and carbon sequestration potential. However, traditional SOC analysis methods, while accurate, are often time-consuming and cost-prohibitive, thereby limiting scalability. Consequently, the development of rapid methods such as near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR), when combined with machine learning-based predictive models of SOC, is a promising solution for expeditious and low-cost mapping techniques. This study explores its application on a field scale to develop maps for organic carbon levels.The calibration dataset comprises 460 soil samples obtained from northern Italy, while the validation dataset consists of 75 samples from two fields located in the Po Valley. Soil samples were collected according to a regular 50-meter grid at a depth of 30 centimeters. To map SOC concentration, these samples were analyzed by an external laboratory employing standard wet reference methods. The NIR analysis was conducted using the NIRFlex N500 (Buchi) in diffuse reflectance mode over the 1000-2500 nm range.Different calibration models were created using three machine learning techniques: i) Locally Weighted Regression (LWR) configured with 30 local point selected from the local PLS space using 4 latent variables; ii) Gradient Boosted Tree Regression (XGBoost) with max_depth set to 4 and num_round to 300 to prevent overfitting; iii) Deep Learning Artificial Neural Network (ANNDL), implemented using TensorFlow as the framework and Rmsprop as the optimizer. The network was designed as a multilayer densely connected architecture. The spectral data were first compressed using PLS (8 latent variables) to improve training performance.The NIR-based estimation for organic carbon content was evaluated using Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and BIAS metrics. The machine learning calibration models showed the following results: i) RMSECV=3.53 and BIAS (cal)=0.04; ii) RMSECV=3.04 and BIAS (cal)=0.06; iii) RMSECV=3.32 and BIAS (cal)=-0.07. Moreover, the prediction demonstrated these metrics for the first field: i) RMSEP=2.14, BIAS (pred)=0.05; ii) RMSEP=2.77, BIAS (pred)=0.90; iii) RMSEP= 2.40, BIAS (pred)= 0.64. Instead, for the second field, the following predictions were made: i) RMSEP=3.05, BIAS (pred)=0.31; ii) RMSEP=2.52, BIAS (pred)=0.72; iii) RMSEP=2.05, BIAS (pred)=0.67.To compare the practical efficiency of NIR models with reference methods, concentration maps of SOC were created by dividing them into two homogeneous zones (high and low SOC). Subsequently, the maps obtained using each NIR model were overlapped with that obtained using the reference method to calculate the percentage of consensus area. If the overlap exceeded 70%, the model was considered suitable for precision agriculture purposes.

Extensive grazing in alpine environments represents a livestock management strategy that contributes to landscape conservation, animal welfare, and allows the production of high-quality dairy products. Digital technologies offer a potential solution to these challenges by supporting farmers and facilitating generational turnover. In this work, 20 lactating cows were monitored during the grazing season using GPS devices to track movements across the pasture area and activometers composed of an accelerometer-based collar that recorded cow neck movements continuously, classifying them into three possible behaviours: rumination, feeding and resting. Data provided by the activometers were collected with a resolution of 15 min intervals, reporting the duration of each activity, while GPS data were collected at an average frequency of 5 min. GPS data were filtered for potential outliers and subsequently aligned with activometers data through a Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) algorithm. This data fusion optimization enabled the creation of a robust integrated dataset in which each GPS position was associated with the animal’s predominant activity, allowing the analysis of grazing patterns and the generation of high-resolution grazing maps. The combination of these two digital tools proved effective in assessing animal behaviour in mountainous environments, providing operational indicators to support pasture management and improve forage biomass utilisation.