The beneficial role of fungi from the Trichoderma genus and its secondary metabolites in promoting plant growth, uptake and use efficiency of macronutrients and oligo/micro-nutrients, activation of plant secondary metabolism and plant protection from diseases makes it interesting for application in environmentally friendly agriculture. However, the literature data on the effect of Trichoderma inoculation on tomato fruit quality is scarce. Commercially used tomato cultivars were chosen in combination with indigenous Trichodrema species previously characterized on molecular and biochemical level, to investigate the effect of Trichoderma on photosynthetic characteristics and fruit quality of plants grown in organic system of production. Examined cultivars differed in the majority of examined parameters. Response of cultivar Gružanski zlatni to Trichoderma application was more significant. As a consequence of increased epidermal flavonols and decreased chlorophyll, the nitrogen balance index in leaves has decreased, indicating a shift from primary to secondary metabolism. The quality of its fruit was altered in the sense of increased total flavonoids content, decreased starch, increased Bioaccumulation Index (BI) for Fe and Cr, and decreased BI for heavy metals Ni and Pb. Higher expression of swolenin gene in tomato roots of more responsive tomato cultivar indicates better root colonization, which correlates with observed positive effects of Trichodrema.

Soil pollution with heavy metals is a serious threat to the environment. However, soils polluted with heavy metals are considered good sources of native metal-resistant Trichoderma strains. Trichoderma spp. are free-living fungi commonly isolated from different ecosystems, establishing endophytic associations with plants. They have important ecological and biotechnological roles due to their production of a wide range of secondary metabolites, thus regulating plant growth and development or inducing resistance to plant pathogens. In this work we used indigenous Trichoderma strains that were previously isolated from different soil types to determine their tolerance to increased copper and nickel concentrations as well as mechanisms of metal removal. The concentrations of bioavailable metal concentrations were determined after extraction with diethylene-triamine pentaacetate (DTPA)-extractable metals (Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Pb, Mn, Ni, and Zn) from the soil samples by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Two indigenous T. harzianum strains were selected for copper tolerance, and three indigenous T. longibrachiatum strains were selected for nickel tolerance tests. Strains were isolated from the soils with the highest and among the lowest DTPA-extractable metal concentrations to determine whether the adaptation to different concentrations of metals affects the mechanisms of remediation. Mechanisms of metal removal were determined using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), non-destructive methods characterized by high measurement speed with little or no need for sample preparation and very low costs. Increased DTPA-extractable metal content for nickel and copper was detected in the soil samples above the target value (TV), and for nickel above the soil remediation intervention values (SRIVs), for total metal concentrations which were previously determined. The SRIV is a threshold of metal concentrations indicating a serious soil contamination, thus confirming the need for soil remediation. The use of FTIR and XRF methods revealed that the presence of both biosorption and accumulation of metals in the Trichoderma cells, providing good bioremediation potential for Ni and Cu.

The significance of sustainable energy development and the battle against climate change continues to grow each year. Countries exhibiting unsustainable fossil fuel consumption practices are actively pursuing strategies to decrease import dependency and mitigate pollution through innovative approaches in their energy policies. In this context, the countries aim to rely primarily on their own direct and indirect energy resources. Identifying and using new resources to secure clean energy represents one of the strategic approaches to achieving the established objective. The focus is on using resources that have the greatest potential and whose exploitation aligns with the economic capabilities of the countries. The Western Balkan countries have relied on substantial coal use for decades, resulting in significant pollution emissions, but they lack the capacity to invest in specific renewable energy alternatives. Upon examining the potential, it is evident that the most significant opportunity for acquiring clean energy in the region is found in the biomass sourced from forestry and agriculture. The exploitation of agroforestry systems facilitates carbon sequestration, in addition to various beneficial outcomes. The Western Balkan region boasts abundant forests and lands conducive to the implementation of agroforestry systems, which hold considerable, yet untapped, potential for clean energy generation. This paper aims to review and synthesize knowledge regarding agroforestry in the Western Balkan countries, assess the capacity of forest and agroforestry resources, and identify essential activities that can promote their more intensive yet sustainable use. The potential of using agroforestry as a source of bioenergy has not been sufficiently explored in the Western Balkans. Therefore, the research was conducted by examining the scientific literature and pertinent statistical indicators. The literature search covered 85 scientific references, encompassing conference proceedings, abstracts, and additional valuable resources. This expanded reference base provided a solid foundation for analyses and discussions on agroforestry in the Western Balkan region. Following that, an analysis of the forest potential and prior experiences in energy production from forest biomass in five Western Balkan countries was conducted and presented. The analysis revealed that the share of forests and forest biomass in the region’s total territory is the lowest in Albania (37.5%) and the highest in Bosnia and Herzegovina (61.1%). This signifies a substantial biomass potential that is underused, while agroforestry systems exist in rural regions only in a few areas that satisfy the requirements of individual households. The systematic collection of biomass from the agroforestry system and its usage for clean energy generation are at a minimal level. Furthermore, the examination of the regulatory framework demonstrates the importance of developing policies and incentive mechanisms that recognize agroforestry as a method of obtaining biomass and ensuring food and water security. Therefore, a model of the supply chain and the main elements of the agroforestry–agriculture–energy nexus is proposed as a starting point for enhancing cross-sectoral cooperation and the sustainable use of forest resources. The main findings presented in this paper could benefit the Western Balkan countries seeking to enhance sustainable energy development approaches. Given the substantial forest and land resources and favorable climatic conditions in the Western Balkan region, forthcoming strategies must incorporate the formulation and implementation of effective agroforestry policies, as well as their integration into energy policy and sustainable development plans.

Seed germination is a complex process that can be negatively affected by numerous stresses. Trichoderma spp. are known as effective biocontrol agents as well as plant growth and germination stimulators. However, understanding of the early interactions between seeds and Trichoderma spp. remains limited. In the present paper, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy were used to reveal the nature of tomato seed germination as stimulated by Trichoderma. A rapid response of tomato seeds to Trichoderma spp. was observed within 48 h on Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) substrate, preceding any physical contact. Raman analysis indicated that both Trichoderma species stimulated phenolic compound synthesis by triggering plant-specific responses in seed radicles. The impact of T. harzianum and T. brevicompactum on two tomato cultivars resulted in alterations to the middle lamella pectin, cellulose, and xyloglucan in the primary cell wall. The Raman spectra indicated increased xylan content in NA with T9 treatment as well as increased hemicelluloses in GZ with T4 treatment. Moreover, T4 treatment resulted in elevated conjugated aldehydes in lignin in GZ, whereas the trend was reversed in NA. Additionally, FTIR analysis revealed significant changes in total protein levels in Trichoderma spp.-treated tomato seed radicles, with simultaneous decreases in pectin and/or xyloglucan. Our results indicate that two complementary spectroscopic methods, FTIR and Raman spectroscopy, can give valuable information on rapid changes in the plant cell wall structure of tomato radicles during germination stimulated by Trichoderma spp.