A shadow economy does not happen by accident. It is a recognised consequence of imperfections in the economic system and inadequacies in economic policy. While the factors that generate and foster the growth of a shadow economy are many and complex, literature considers the following to be the most important: excessive tax burden, government over-regulation of business, and poor performance by government bodies (tax, judiciary, police, and other authorities). Identifying the fundamental causes of a shadow economy is a precondition for designing efficient instruments and policy measures to tackle it. The aim of this chapter is to review the main causes of the shadow economy in Serbia. For this purpose we divided the causes of the shadow economy into: causes rooted in the tax system; causes linked to labour market institutions; other institutional and economic causes; and causes present in the financial sector. We analysed these causes using, wherever possible and appropriate, elementary theoretical analysis, comparative data, views held by social partners on how institutions operate, and the results of the Survey on Conditions for Doing Business in Serbia.

Agricultural loans present unutilized bank credit market segment in Serbia. This is not only missed profit opportunity for banks, but also serious deficiency that slows down the development of agriculture and rural areas. Paper uses FADN, NBS and bank balance sheet data in order to analyse supply and demand side of this credit market segment, with the aim to better understand the conditions for its development. Paper recommends better education of producers and lenders. Banks should better understand the requirements of agricultural producers and risks of the production to be able to create tailored credits. Insurance has very important role in specific risk hedging and can facilitate agricultural loans. There is also a need to adjust the conditions for obtaining subsidized loans, while the land size is considered as a key prerequisite for obtaining loans in the situation of large fragmentation of properties.

Background/Aim. Cerebral palsy (CP) is the most common physical disability in childhood. Children have problems with motor functions as a result of limbs spasticity, which leads to severe contractures and limbs deformity. There is a growing interest in the therapeutic role of botulinum toxin type A (BTA) in CP. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of BTA on spasticity, active range of motion and functional motor outcomes in children with CP. Methods. This study included 42 children of both sexes, aged 2−6 years, with spastic CP, divided into two groups: group I (21 child) treated with BTA and physical therapy, and group II (21 child) treated with physical therapy only. The following parameters were analyzed: spasticity; active range of motion of the hip, knee and ankle, and functional motor outcome. These parameters measurements were carried out four times in both groups: before the treatment, three, eight and 16 weeks after the beginning of the treatment. The obtained results were statistically processed and compared. Results. There was no evidence of any significant difference between the groups before the treatment. After eight weeks there was a remarkable difference concerning spasticity reducing on behalf of the group I (group I - 0.76±0.51 vs. II group - 2.17±0.64; p < 0.0001). There was statistically significant difference concerning active range of motion increasing on behalf of the group I (hip abduction: group I - 44.37±1.130 vs. group II - 32.61±8,070, p < 0,01; knee extension: group I - 0,77±1.820 vs. II group - 14.99±7.610, p < 0.01; dorsiflexion of the foot: group I - 11.50±6.080 vs. group II - 8.98±7.850, p < 0,01). A statistically significant difference was found after 16 weeks in functional motor outcome as well, on behalf of the group I: functional motor abilities level in the group I was 1.86 vs. 2.71 in the group II, p < 0.05. Conclusion. Botulinum toxin type A application leads to an important spasticity decreasing, active range of motion increasing, as well as to functional abilities in children with CP. .

Background/Aim. Soft tissue defects of the lower leg, especially in its distal third, still remain a challenging problem in reconstructive surgery. The aim of this study was to examine septocutaneous system of lower leg vascularization, quantitatively and qualitatively, which is the basis of fasciocutaneous and neurocutaneous flaps. Methods. Septocutaneous systems a. tibialis posterior and a. peroneae were examined by anatomical suprafascial lower leg microdissection of 40 fresh cadavers. Septocutaneous perforators located intermusculary, in deep crural fascia duplicature, were followed from its origin (at main arterial trunks of the lower leg) till the point they reach the deep crural fascia. The number and localization of emergence of the septocutaneous perforators were examined for both above mentioned arterial trunks, and the obtained data were documented by photographs, tables and graphics. Statistical analysis (especially cluster analysis), was used for establishing reliable septocutaneous perforators levels. Results. Septocutaneous perforator systems of the lower leg have constant and reliable pattern of existance. Lower leg length was 36 cm in average, (between 33 and 43 cm). Lower leg was divided in 10 equal segments, 3.6 cm each. A. tibialis posterior and a. peronea had 5 septocutaneous perforators. Cluster analysis of a. tibialis posterior perforators (with diameter ? 0.5 mm), discovered 5 reliable levels of septocutaneous perforators. These levels are at 3.6-10.8 cm; 14.4-21.6 cm and 25.2-28.8 cm. For a. peronea reliable perforators were found at 3.6-10.8 cm, 14.4-18 cm and 21.6-25.2 cm. Posterior tibial artery perforators had the greatest diameter (from 0.5-1.8 mm; mean value 1.14 mm and SD = 0,26 mm). A mean diameter for peroneal artery perforators was 0.9 mm. Conclusion. Existance of reliable levels of septocutaneous perforators of the lower leg enables and makes reconstruction of the soft tissue defects of the lower leg, especially its distal third and foot, much easier.

Prague Economic Papers - impact factor journal of the University of Economics, Prague

Introduction. Sarcoidosis is a multisystemic disease of unknown etiology. Genetic factors play a considerable role in the onset of the disease. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-?) is a proinflammatory cytokine which plays an important role in the pathogenesis of the disease and the formation of granuloma by regulating cellular proliferation and apoptosis. Objective. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of TNF-?-308 G/A polymorphism in the development of sarcoidosis and to evaluate the association between the aforementioned type of polymorphism and the clinical course of the disease. Methods. Seventy patients with sarcoidosis and 50 healthy volunteers were genotyped for the TNF-?-308G/A polymorphism. Polymorphism variants were examined by PCR-RFLP (polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism) on the DNA isolated from blood leukocytes. Results. There were no significant differences in TNF-?-308A allele frequency distribution between sarcoidosis patients and the control group, but the TNF-?-308A allele was observed significantly more frequently in the sarcoidosis patients with L?fgren?s syndrome when compared with non-L?fgren?s patients. Conclusion. We have found that the TNF-?-308A variant is associated with L?fgren?s syndrome in Serbian patients with sarcoidosis.