In recent years, a growing number of studies investigated the presence of micro- and nanoscopic particles in the environment originating from commonly used plastics. Pathways into the environment and generation mechanisms are still not well understood. Controlled generation methods of particles from macroplastics are required to enable research of the fundamental processes governing the dispersion of these particles in the environment. Here, we present the results of a study focusing on the generation and characterization of aerosol nanoparticles from macroplastics using a tube furnace. Three common thermoplastics were used as particle material: Polyethene (PE), Polypropene (PP) and Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET). Commodity versions of these materials were compared to higher-purity versions. The produced particles were size characterized using a Differential Mobility Particle Sizer. Furthermore, we investigated the activation of particles from PET in Condensation Particle Counters by measuring the 50% cut-off diameters. The results could be directly compared to previous measurements using other organic seed particles. Our study provides crucial insights into the effects governing the production of aerosolized nanoparticles from thermoplastics at comparatively low temperatures. We therefore expect our study to act as basis for further research towards a thorough understanding of the physicochemical processes governing nanoparticle production from plastic materials. Eventually this may lead to new detection methods of nanoplastics in airborne state and allow for quantification of airborne nanoplastic concentrations.

Background: Strong expansion of intermittent renewable generation puts increasing pressure on distribution grids and requires significant grid enforcement measures. Electrolysis may act as an alternative to conventional grid enforcement to overcome grid constraints in a timely and effective manner as it creates additional flexible load and thus enables renewable production peaks to be absorbed. In doing this, conventional grid enforcement measures are avoided and additional value is created through the production of hydrogen.The focus of this work is on two aspects: First, a regulatory analysis is undertaken to develop feasible organisational models since DSOs are typically not allowed to engage in generation activities. Second, a techno-economic analysis is done for four case studies in the network area of 'Energienetze Steiermark' in Austria. Thereby, grid simulation determines the minimum grid-supportive operation and is combined afterwords with profit-maximising dispatch of the electrolysis against market prices. A technical simulation assures that non-linearities and minimum stable generation of the electrolysis are respected. In a cost-benefit analysis, the net benefit was compared against the costs of conventional grid enforcement measures. Results: The regulatory analysis reveals that ownership of electrolysis by DSOs is almost ruled out by European and Austrian legislation. Only after an exceptional permission from the regulatory authority following a negative tender, the DSO is allowed to operate the facility in a grid-supportive way only. The results of the techno-economic analysis show that the capacity factor for the electrolysis is below 5 % when operated in grid-supportive mode only but a hydrogen price above 6 EUR/kg incentivizes market based operation and contributes to resolving the grid congestion. Conclusions: Ownership of the electrolysis can be awarded to a market player and the flexibility service can be procured by the DSO. It is not economically viable to operate electrolysis for grid-supportive purposes only. In general, if the price of hydrogen is high enough, profit maximising behavior of the electrolysis partly resolves the grid congestion and the overall benefits outweigh the costs. This conclusion also holds when comparing the economic results of the electrolyzer against conventional grid enforcement measures.

In light of the strong expansion of renewables, electrolysis may act as an alternative to conventional grid enforcement to overcome grid constraints in a timely and effective manner, as it creates additional flexible load and thus enables renewable production peaks to be absorbed. This paper examines whether hydrogen electrolysis can serve as a cost-effective alternative to conventional grid reinforcement in Austrian electricity distribution networks. It goes beyond the current state of the art by using three real-world case studies in Styria, using an integrated techno-economic framework combining distribution-grid simulations, market optimisation, PEM electrolysis modelling and cost–benefit analysis to compare the grid-supportive electrolysis against conventional grid enforcement. The results demonstrate that grid-supportive electrolysis can become competitive under suitable hydrogen market conditions. When operated in grid-supportive mode only, the capacity factor for the electrolysis lies below 5%. Economic viability emerges only when electrolysers are allowed to combine grid-supportive operation with market-driven hydrogen production. Thereby, the hydrogen price proves to be the key determinant: a hydrogen price above approximately 6 EUR/kg incentivises market-based operation and naturally resolves grid congestion without further intervention by the DSO. In some locations, smaller electrolysers (around 20–60% of the theoretically required size) deliver the best economic performance, recovering most curtailed renewable energy while limiting investment costs compared to conventional grid extension.

In light of strong expansion of renewables, electrolysis may act as an alternative to conventional grid enforcement to overcome grid constraints in a timely and effective manner as it creates additional flexible load and thus enables renewable production peaks to be absorbed. This paper examines whether hydrogen electrolysis can serve as a cost-effective alternative to conventional grid reinforcement in Austrian electricity distribution networks. It goes beyond the current state of art by using three real-world case studies in Styria, using an integrated techno-economic framework combining distribution-grid simulations, market optimization, PEM electrolysis modelling and cost-benefit analysis to compare the grid-supportive electrolysis against conventional grid enforcement. The results demonstrate that grid-supportive electrolysis can become competitive under suitable hydrogen market conditions. When operated in grid-supportive mode only, the capacity factor for the electrolysis lies below 5%. Economic viability emerges only when electrolysers are allowed to combine grid-supportive operation with market-driven hydrogen production. Thereby, the hydrogen price proves to be the key determinant: a hydrogen price above approximately 6 EUR/kg incentivizes market based operation and naturally resolves grid congestion without further intervention by the DSO. In some locations, smaller electrolysers (around 20–60% of the theoretically required size) deliver the best economic performance, recovering most curtailed renewable energy while limiting investment costs compared to conventional grid extension.