Sperm of humans, non-human primates, and other mammalian subjects is considered to be antigenic. The effect of changes in autoimmunity on reproductive cells such as spermatozoa and oocytes play a critical but indistinct role in fertility. Antisperm antibodies (ASAs) are invariably present in both females and males. However, the degree of ASA occurrence may vary according to individual and gender. Although the extent of infertility due to ASAs alone is yet to be determined, it has been found in almost 9–12% of patients who are infertile due to different causes. Postcoital presence of spermatozoa in the reproductive tract of women is not a contributory factor in ASA generation. However, ASA generation may be induced by trauma to the vaginal mucosa, or by anal or oral sex resulting in the deposition of sperm inside the digestive tract. It is strongly believed that, in humans and other species, at least some antibodies may bind to sperm antigens, causing infertility. This form of infertility is termed as immunological infertility, which may be accompanied by impairment of fertility, even in individuals with normozoospermia. Researchers target ASAs for two major reasons: (i) to elucidate the association between ASAs and infertility, the reason ASAs causes infertility, and the mechanism underlying ASA-mediated infertility; and (ii) to assess the potential of ASAs as a contraceptive in humans in case ASAs influences infertility. Therefore, this review explores the potential application of ASAs in the development of anti-spermatozoa vaccines for contraceptive purposes. The usefulness of ASAs for diagnosing obstructive azoospermia, salpingitis, and oligoasthenoteratozoospermia has been reviewed extensively. Important patents pertaining to potential candidates for spermatozoa-derived vaccines that may be utilized as contraceptives are discussed in depth. Antifertility vaccines, as well as treatments for ASA-related infertility, are also highlighted. This review will address many unresolved issues regarding mechanisms involving ASAs in the diagnosis, as well as prognoses, of male infertility. More documented scientific reports are cited to support the mechanisms underlying the potential role of ASA in infertility. The usefulness of sperm antigens or ASAs (recombinant) in human and wild or captive animal contraceptive vaccines has been revealed through research but is yet to be validated via clinical testing.

The rising environmental temperatures and growing global demand for animal protein pose major challenges to sustainable livestock production, highlighting the urgent need for climate change mitigation strategies. The livestock system in different parts of the world, especially in developing and underdeveloped nations, holds a significant role in supporting the livelihoods and nutritional security of millions, yet climate change is jeopardizing its efficiency and exacerbating its carbon footprint. This increase in carbon footprint is an alarming challenge for global sustainability, which needs to be addressed meticulously with fruitful outcomes. As the world’s largest livestock hub, the Indian livestock system can be adopted as a model for understanding the challenges and opportunities within the livestock system to develop sustainable approaches. In 2022, India accounted for approximately 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs), with a total of 3.9 billion metric tons of CO₂e. This review provides updated insights on the livestock-related carbon footprint, sustainability-enhancing technologies, GHG estimation models, and strategies for climate-neutral livestock production. Emission estimation models are categorized into source-based and whole-farm models for a comprehensive assessment of emissions. Mitigation strategies for cattle include rumen modification, nutritional approaches, efficient manure management, and precision livestock farming. India’s commitment to achieving net-zero emissions by 2070 is reflected in various initiatives aimed at promoting sustainable livestock systems. Future perspectives emphasize decision modeling and climate-resilient technologies to address environmental challenges in alignment with the UN’s sustainable development goals.

Mortality in a broiler chicken farm was investigated for identifying the cause of mortality