COVID-19 is characterized by the presence of oxidative stress. Vitamin D status has been reviewed as one of the factors that may affect disease severity. The aim of this study was to assess the rel...

BACKGROUND: Besides carpal tunnel syndrome and cubital tunnel syndrome, other nerve entrapment sites in the upper extremity are less recognized. Only half of the upper extremity compression neuropathy syndromes are actually carpal tunnel and cubital tunnel compressions. This suggests that the rest of the entrapment syndromes are potentially not treated adequately. They are often misdiagnosed or the level of compression is not being distinguished. AIM: To raise awareness of compression syndromes (other than the carpal tunnel) in the arms and to describe the clinical triad to diagnose them. METHODS: This is a narrative review of the clinical features of the compression syndromes of the median, ulnar, and radial nerves in the upper extremities. The diagnostic triad for each syndrome is analyzed. The review focuses especially on the lacertus syndrome and describes the surgical release. CONCLUSION: A correct diagnosis is essential for targeted treatment of upper extremity nerve compression syndromes. It should also include an assessment of individual muscle strength, which is a critical part of the clinical neurological tests.

Background: Inappropriate antibiotic use contributes to antimicrobial resistance and adverse drug reactions (ADR), including antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD), underscoring the importance of WHO AWaRe recommendations for rational prescribing. Clinical evidence supports the use of specific probiotic strains to reduce AAD risk, with strain-specific recommendations that should be adapted to regional contexts. Objectives: To assess oral antibiotic consumption in the Republic of North Macedonia (2011–2022), evaluate prescribing patterns according to the WHO AWaRe classification, identify antibiotics associated with a higher burden of AAD, and determine the availability of evidence-supported probiotics for AAD prevention. Design: Observational pharmaco-epidemiological study integrating antibiotic utilization data, pharmacovigilance signals, and evidence synthesis from systematic reviews and market analysis. Methods: Reimbursed oral antibiotic data (ATC J01) were obtained from the National Health Insurance Fund. Gastrointestinal ADR reports were extracted from EudraVigilance and FAERS. Diarrhea risk was estimated using SmPC frequency categories and normalized pharmacovigilance indicators. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were used to identify probiotic strains with evidence for AAD prevention, and online pharmacy surveys assessed market availability. Results: Penicillins and cephalosporins predominated in antibiotic use. Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, cefixime, and clindamycin ranked highest for diarrhea risk based on combined utilization and pharmacovigilance indicators. Saccharomyces boulardii and Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG showed the strongest evidence for AAD prevention. Considerable variability was observed in probiotic product composition and reporting across the market. Conclusion: Findings highlight antibiotics with higher AAD-related public health burden and support antimicrobial stewardship strategies, including evidence-based probiotic co-administration.

BACKGROUND: Besides carpal tunnel syndrome and cubital tunnel syndrome, other nerve entrapment sites in the upper extremity are less recognized. Only half of the upper extremity compression neuropathy syndromes are actually carpal tunnel and cubital tunnel compressions. This suggests that the rest of the entrapment syndromes are potentially not treated adequately. They are often misdiagnosed or the level of compression is not being distinguished. AIM: To raise awareness of compression syndromes (other than the carpal tunnel) in the arms and to describe the clinical triad to diagnose them. METHODS: This is a narrative review of the clinical features of the compression syndromes of the median, ulnar, and radial nerves in the upper extremities. The diagnostic triad for each syndrome is analyzed. The review focuses especially on the lacertus syndrome and describes the surgical release. CONCLUSION: A correct diagnosis is essential for targeted treatment of upper extremity nerve compression syndromes. It should also include an assessment of individual muscle strength, which is a critical part of the clinical neurological tests.

Cytokines are critical intermediaries of immune and inflammatory responses and present a central role in the pathogenesis of numerous rare diseases. Dysregulated cytokine production and signaling contribute to disease onset, progression, and clinical heterogeneity, particularly in autoinflammatory, autoimmune, genetic, and neurodegenerative disorders. They are synthesized and secreted by numerous cell types, including monocytes, T- and B- lymphocytes, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and epithelial cells. Auto-inflammatory and autoimmune diseases represent two major categories of immune-mediated disorders characterized by dysregulated immune responses. Although traditionally considered distinct, increasing evidence supports a continuum between innate and adaptive immune dysfunction. Auto-inflammatory diseases are driven primarily by aberrations in the innate immune system, without significant participation of antigen-specific T cells or autoantibodies. These conditions are often associated with genetic mutations affecting inflammasome components, leading to excessive activation of inflammatory pathways. Recent advances in molecular immunology have allowed the identification of disease-specific cytokine crosses and facilitated the advance of targeted biological therapies. Future research should therefore focus on identifying reliable biomarkers for treatment stratification, understanding mechanisms of therapeutic resistance, and developing safer and more effective immunomodulatory approaches. Continued progress in cytokine biology and precision immunology is expected to substantially improve outcomes and quality of life for patients with rare autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases. This review delivers a comprehensive overview of cytokine biology, their involvement in rare diseases, and current and emerging cytokine-targeted therapeutic strategies. Additionally, it highlights the role of cytokines as biomarkers and discusses future perspectives in precision medicine.