The grass family comprises the most important cereal crops and is a good system for studying, with comparative genomics, mechanisms of evolution, speciation, and domestication. Here, we identified and characterized the evolution of shared duplications in the rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) genomes by comparing 42,654 rice gene sequences with 6426 mapped wheat ESTs using improved sequence alignment criteria and statistical analysis. Intraspecific comparisons identified 29 interchromosomal duplications covering 72% of the rice genome and 10 duplication blocks covering 67.5% of the wheat genome. Using the same methodology, we assessed orthologous relationships between the two genomes and detected 13 blocks of colinearity that represent 83.1 and 90.4% of the rice and wheat genomes, respectively. Integration of the intraspecific duplications data with colinearity relationships revealed seven duplicated segments conserved at orthologous positions. A detailed analysis of the length, composition, and divergence time of these duplications and comparisons with sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and maize (Zea mays) indicated common and lineage-specific patterns of conservation between the different genomes. This allowed us to propose a model in which the grass genomes have evolved from a common ancestor with a basic number of five chromosomes through a series of whole genome and segmental duplications, chromosome fusions, and translocations.

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) were undertaken to identify SNP markers associated with yield and yield-related traits in 123 Pakistani historical wheat cultivars evaluated during 2011-2014 seasons under semi-arid field conditions. The population was genotyped in a high-density Illumina iSelect 90K single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) assay, and finally 14,960 high quality SNPs were used in GWAS. Population structure examined using 1000 unlinked markers identified seven subpopulations (K=7) that were representative of different breeding programs in Pakistan, in addition to local landraces. Forty four stable marker-trait associations (MTAs) with –log p >4 were identified for nine yield-related traits. Nine multi-trait MTAs were found on chromosomes 1AL, 1BS, 2AL, 2BS, 2BL, 4BL, 5BL, 6AL and 6BL, and those on 5BL and 6AL were stable across two seasons. Gene annotation and syntey identified that 14 trait-associated SNPs were linked to genes having significant importance in plant development. Favorable alleles for days to heading (DH), plant height (PH), thousand grain weight (TGW) and grain yield (GY) showed minor additive effects and their frequencies were slightly higher in cultivars released after 2000. However, no selection pressure on any favorable allele was identified. These genomic regions identified have historically contributed to achieve yield gains from 2.63 million tonnes in 1947 to 25.7 million tonnes in 2015. Future breeding strategy can be devised to initiate marker-based breeding to accumulate these favorable alleles of SNPs associated with yield-related traits to increase grain yield. Additionally, in silico identification of 454-contigs corresponding to MTAs will facilitate fine mapping and subsequent cloning of candidate genes and functional marker development.

Green synthesis of nanomaterials is advancing due to its ease of synthesis, inexpensiveness, nontoxicity and renewability. In the present study, an eco-friendly biogenic method was developed for the green synthesis of nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiONPs) using phytochemically rich Berberis balochistanica stem (BBS) extract. The BBS extract was rich in phenolics, flavonoids and berberine. These phytochemicals successfully reduced and stabilised the NiNO₃ (green) into NiONPs (greenish-gray). BBS-NiONPs were confirmed by using UV-visible spectroscopy (peak at 305 nm), X-ray diffraction (size of 31.44 nm), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (identified -OH group and Ni-O formation), energy dispersive spectroscopy (showed specified elemental nature) and scanning electron microscopy (showed rhombohedral agglomerated shape). BBS-NiONPs were exposed to multiple in vitro bioactivities to ascertain their beneficial biological applications. They exhibited strong antioxidant activities: total antioxidant capacity (64.77%) and 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (71.48%); and cytotoxic potential: Brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay with IC₅₀ (10.40 µg/mL). BBS-NiONPs restricted the bacterial and fungal pathogenic growths at 1000, 500 and 100 µg/mL. Additionally, BBS-NiONPs showed stimulatory efficacy by enhancing seed germination rate and seedling growth at 31.25 and 62.5 µg/mL. In aggregate, BBS extract has a potent antioxidant activity which makes the green biosynthesis of NiONPs easy, economical and safe. The biochemical potential of BBS-NiONPs can be useful in various biomedical and agricultural fields.