Environmental crises, land degradation, and frequent crop failure threaten the livelihoods of millions of the populace in the semi-arid agroecosystems. Therefore, different combinations of annual crops with perennial fruit trees were assessed to restore the soil carbon, and enhance farm productivity and profitability in a semi-arid climate. The study hypothesized that the integration of perennial fruit trees with seasonal crops may enhance farm productivity, economic returns, and environmental sustainability. Integration of phalsa (Grewia asiatica) with mung bean (Vigna radiata) - potato (Solanum tuberosum) system recorded the highest system productivity (25.9 Mg/ha) followed by phalsa with cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) -mustard (Brassica juncea) systems (21.2 Mg/ha). However, Karonda (Carissa sp.) with mung bean - potato system recorded maximum net return (3529.1 US$/ha), and water use efficiency (33.0 kg/ha-mm). Concerning the benefit-cost (B:C) ratio, among the agroforestry systems, the karonda + cowpea - mustard system registered a maximum BC ratio (3.85). However, SOC density remained higher (9.10 Mg/ha) under the phalsa + cowpea - mustard and Moringa + mung bean - potato system (9.16 Mg/ha) over other systems. Similarly, phalsa + mung bean - potato system had the highest C sustainability index (27.6), carbon sequestration potential (0.6–0.67 Mg/ha/year), and water use efficiency (33.0 kg/ha-mm). Hence, the study suggested that the integration of short-duration leguminous and oilseeds with fruit trees offer a myriad of benefits and an efficient system for restoring the soil C without compromising the food and livelihood security of the rural populace in semiarid regions.

Intensive mono-cropping without a balanced supply of nutrients and declining water resources are degrading soil health, and as a consequence, agriculture production is becoming unsustainable and causing environmental degradation. The field experiment was conducted during Rabi season to assess the effect of an irrigation schedule, nutrient management, and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties on soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) and soil enzymes activities. Two nutrient levels, recommended rate of chemical fertilizer (RDF) and 50% RDF + 50% recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN) through farmyard manure (FYM) designated as Integrated Nutrient Sources (INS), and three irrigations levels, one irrigation at crown root initiation (CRI), two irrigations at CRI and flowering stages, and five irrigations at all main stages of the crop (CRI, tillering, jointing, flowering, and grain filling) were allocated to main-plots while four varieties of wheat, HD 2967, WR 544, HD 2987, and HD 2932, were allocated to sub-plots. The results revealed that SMBC and activities of dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase enzymes, and acid phosphatase were higher under restricted irrigation (irrigation at CRI stage) than other irrigation schedules. SMBC, dehydrogenase, acid phosphatase, and alkaline phosphatase activities were 73.0 µg g soil⁻¹, 86.0 µg TPF g soil⁻¹d⁻¹, 39.6 µg PNP g soil⁻¹ h¹, and 81.8 µg PNP g⁻¹ soil h⁻¹, respectively, with the use of INS that was higher than RDF. Root weight and root volume followed a similar pattern. Applying single irrigation at CRI left behind the maximum available nitrogen (166.4 kg ha⁻¹) in soil compared to other irrigation schedules and it was highest (149.31 kg ha⁻¹) with the use of INS. Moreover, total organic carbon (TOC) was 0.44 and 0.43% higher with irrigation at CRI stages and the use of INS, respectively. The INS with single irrigation at the CRI stage is important to improve the root growth, SMBC dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, and acid phosphatase enzyme activity in the wheat production system.

The rice-wheat system (RWS), managed over 10.5 Mha in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India suffers from production fatigue caused by declining soil organic matter, multi-nutrient deficiencies and diminishing factor productivity. We, therefore, conducted a long-term field experiment (1998–1999 to 2017–2018) in Modipuram, India to study the effect of continuous use of farmyard manure (FYM) as an organic fertilizer (OF), mineral fertilizers applied alone (RDF) and their combination (IPNS), as well as the inclusion of forage berseem (IPNS+B) or forage cowpea (IPNS+C) on crop yield, soil health and profits. The long-term yield trends were positive (p < 0.05) in all treatments except the control (unfertilized) in rice, and the control and RDF in wheat. Although the yields of rice, wheat and RWS were highest under IPNS treatments (IPNS, IPNS+B, IPNS+C), the maximum annual yield increase in rice (9.2%) and wheat (13.7%) was obtained under OF. A linear regression fitted to the yield data under different IPNS options revealed a highly significant (p < 0.001) annual yield increase in rice (5.1 to 6.6%) and wheat (6.8 to 7.7%) crops. Continuous rice-wheat cropping with RDF brought an increase in soil bulk density (Db) over the initial Db at different soil profile depths, more so at depths of 30–45 cm, but inclusion of forage cowpea or berseem in every third year (IPNS+B or C) helped to decrease Db, not only in surface (0–15 cm) but also in sub-surface (15–30 and 30–45 cm depth) soil. Whereas soil organic carbon (SOC) increased under OF, IPNS and IPNS + legume (B or C) treatments, it remained unaffected under RDF after 20 RW cycles. The inclusion of legumes along with IPNS not only helped to trap the NO₃–N from soil layers below 45 cm but also increased its retention in the upper soil (0–15 cm depth). On the other hand, RDF had a higher NO₃–N content in the lower layers (beyond 45 cm depth), indicating downward NO₃–N leaching beyond the root zone. A build-up of Olsen-P was noticed under RDF at different time intervals. The soil exchangeable K and available S contents were maximal under OF and IPNS options, whereas a decline in DTPA extractable-Zn was recorded under OF. Overall, RWS economics revealed that OF treatment involved the maximum cost of cultivation (US$1174 ha⁻¹) with the least economic net return (US$1211 ha⁻¹). Conversely, IPNS + legume (B or C) had lowest cost of cultivation (US$707 to 765 ha⁻¹) and a significantly higher (p < 0.05) net return (US$2233 to 2260 ha⁻¹). The study, thus, underlines the superiority of IPNS over RDF or OF; the inclusion of legumes gives an added advantage in terms of production sustainability and soil health. Further studies involving IPNS ingredients other than FYM is needed to develop location-specific IPNS recommendations.

Accelerated energy use, negative environmental outcomes, and poor economic returns questioned the sustainability of contemporary agricultural production systems globally. The task is much more daunting in the northwestern part of India where the over exploitation of natural resources is a major concern for sustainable agricultural planning. An integrated farming system (IFS) encompasses various enterprises such as crops, dairy, poultry, and fisheries can offer a myriad of benefits in terms of enhanced farm productivity, profitability, and environmental sustainability. Hence, the study hypothesized that the complementary interaction between the different enterprises would improve food production and reduce negative environmental outcomes. Therefore, production potential and environmental sustainability in terms of energy efficiency, greenhouse gas emissions, and eco-efficiency of nine IFS models, namely, crop enterprise (M2); crop + dairy (M3); crop + dairy + fishery (M4); crop + dairy + fishery + poultry (M5); crop + dairy + fishery + poultry + duckery (M6); crop + dairy + fishery + poultry + duckery + apiary (M7); crop + dairy + fishery + poultry + duckery + apiary + boundary plantation (M8); crop + dairy + fishery + poultry + duckery + apiary + boundary plantation + biogas unit (M9); crop + dairy + fishery + poultry + duckery + apiary + boundary plantation + biogas unit + vermicompost (M10), were compared with the rice–wheat system (M1; the existing system). All the IFS models were tested between 2018 and 2021. The results revealed that the highest food production (61.5 Mg ha⁻¹) was recorded under M10 followed by M9 (59.9 Mg ha⁻¹). Concerning environmental sustainability, the combination of crop + dairy + fishery + poultry + duckery + apiary + boundary plantation + biogas unit + vermicompost (M10) recorded considerably higher energy output (517.6 × 10³MJ ha⁻¹), net energy gain (488.5 × 10³MJ ha⁻¹), energy ratio (17.8), and energy profitability (16.8 MJ MJ⁻¹) followed by M9. Furthermore, the M10 had the lowest greenhouse gas (GHG) intensity (0.164 kg CO₂eq per kg food production). However, M9 had the highest eco-efficiency index (44.1 INR per kg GHG emission) followed by M10. Hence, an appropriate combination of diversified and complementary enterprises in a form of IFS model is a productive and environmentally robust approach for sustainable food production in the northwestern part of India.