Efforts to control climate change require the stabilization of atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. This can only be achieved through a drastic reduction of global CO₂ emissions. Yet fossil fuel emissions increased by 29% between 2000 and 2008, in conjunction with increased contributions from emerging economies, from the production and international trade of goods and services, and from the use of coal as a fuel source. In contrast, emissions from land-use changes were nearly constant. Between 1959 and 2008, 43% of each year's CO₂ emissions remained in the atmosphere on average; the rest was absorbed by carbon sinks on land and in the oceans. In the past 50 years, the fraction of CO₂ emissions that remains in the atmosphere each year has likely increased, from about 40% to 45%, and models suggest that this trend was caused by a decrease in the uptake of CO₂ by the carbon sinks in response to climate change and variability. Changes in the CO₂ sinks are highly uncertain, but they could have a significant influence on future atmospheric CO₂ levels. It is therefore crucial to reduce the uncertainties.

The land and ocean absorb on average just over half of the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂) every year. These CO₂ "sinks" are modulated by climate change and variability. Here we use a suite of nine dynamic global vegetation models (DGVMs) and four ocean biogeochemical general circulation models (OBGCMs) to estimate trends driven by global and regional climate and atmospheric CO₂ in land and oceanic CO₂ exchanges with the atmosphere over the period 1990–2009, to attribute these trends to underlying processes in the models, and to quantify the uncertainty and level of inter-model agreement. The models were forced with reconstructed climate fields and observed global atmospheric CO₂; land use and land cover changes are not included for the DGVMs. Over the period 1990–2009, the DGVMs simulate a mean global land carbon sink of −2.4 ± 0.7 Pg C yr⁻¹ with a small significant trend of −0.06 ± 0.03 Pg C yr⁻² (increasing sink). Over the more limited period 1990–2004, the ocean models simulate a mean ocean sink of −2.2 ± 0.2 Pg C yr⁻¹ with a trend in the net C uptake that is indistinguishable from zero (−0.01 ± 0.02 Pg C yr⁻²). The two ocean models that extended the simulations until 2009 suggest a slightly stronger, but still small, trend of −0.02 ± 0.01 Pg C yr⁻². Trends from land and ocean models compare favourably to the land greenness trends from remote sensing, atmospheric inversion results, and the residual land sink required to close the global carbon budget. Trends in the land sink are driven by increasing net primary production (NPP), whose statistically significant trend of 0.22 ± 0.08 Pg C yr⁻² exceeds a significant trend in heterotrophic respiration of 0.16 ± 0.05 Pg C yr⁻² – primarily as a consequence of widespread CO₂ fertilisation of plant production. Most of the land-based trend in simulated net carbon uptake originates from natural ecosystems in the tropics (−0.04 ± 0.01 Pg C yr⁻²), with almost no trend over the northern land region, where recent warming and reduced rainfall offsets the positive impact of elevated atmospheric CO₂ and changes in growing season length on carbon storage. The small uptake trend in the ocean models emerges because climate variability and change, and in particular increasing sea surface temperatures, tend to counter\-act the trend in ocean uptake driven by the increase in atmospheric CO₂. Large uncertainty remains in the magnitude and sign of modelled carbon trends in several regions, as well as regarding the influence of land use and land cover changes on regional trends.

Accurate assessments of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and their redistribution among the atmosphere, ocean, and terrestrial biosphere is important to better understand the global carbon cycle, support the climate policy process, and project future climate change. Present-day analysis requires the combination of a range of data, algorithms, statistics and model estimates and their interpretation by a broad scientific community. Here we describe datasets and a methodology developed by the global carbon cycle science community to quantify all major components of the global carbon budget, including their uncertainties. We discuss changes compared to previous estimates, consistency within and among components, and methodology and data limitations. CO₂ emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement production (E_FF) are based on energy statistics, while emissions from Land-Use Change (E_LUC), including deforestation, are based on combined evidence from land cover change data, fire activity in regions undergoing deforestation, and models. The global atmospheric CO₂ concentration is measured directly and its rate of growth (G_ATM) is computed from the concentration. The mean ocean CO₂ sink (S_OCEAN) is based on observations from the 1990s, while the annual anomalies and trends are estimated with ocean models. Finally, the global residual terrestrial CO₂ sink (S_LAND) is estimated by the difference of the other terms. For the last decade available (2002–2011), E_FF was 8.3 ± 0.4 PgC yr⁻¹, E_LUC 1.0 ± 0.5 PgC yr⁻¹, G_ATM 4.3 ± 0.1 PgC yr⁻¹, S_OCEAN 2.5 ± 0.5 PgC yr⁻¹, and S_LAND 2.6 ± 0.8 PgC yr⁻¹. For year 2011 alone, E_FF was 9.5 ± 0.5 PgC yr⁻¹, 3.0 percent above 2010, reflecting a continued trend in these emissions; E_LUC was 0.9 ± 0.5 PgC yr⁻¹, approximately constant throughout the decade; G_ATM was 3.6 ± 0.2 PgC yr⁻¹, S_OCEAN was 2.7 ± 0.5 PgC yr⁻¹, and S_LAND was 4.1 ± 0.9 PgC yr⁻¹. G_ATM was low in 2011 compared to the 2002–2011 average because of a high uptake by the land probably in response to natural climate variability associated to La Niña conditions in the Pacific Ocean. The global atmospheric CO₂ concentration reached 391.31 ± 0.13 ppm at the end of year 2011. We estimate that E_FF will have increased by 2.6% (1.9–3.5%) in 2012 based on projections of gross world product and recent changes in the carbon intensity of the economy. All uncertainties are reported as ±1 sigma (68% confidence assuming Gaussian error distributions that the real value lies within the given interval), reflecting the current capacity to characterise the annual estimates of each component of the global carbon budget. This paper is intended to provide a baseline to keep track of annual carbon budgets in the future. All data presented here can be downloaded from the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (doi:10.3334/CDIAC/GCP_V2013). Global carbon budget 2013